Enzymatic control of intermolecular interactions for generating synthetic nanoarchitectures in cellular environment.

Nanoarchitectonics, as a technology to arrange nano-sized structural units such as molecules in a desired configuration, requires nano-organization, which usually relies on intermolecular interactions. This review briefly introduces the development of using enzymatic reactions to control intermolecular interactions for generating artificial nanoarchitectures in a cellular environment. We begin the discussion with the early examples and uniqueness of enzymatically controlled self-assembly. Then, we describe examples of generating intracellular nanostructures and their relevant applications. Subsequently, we discuss cases of forming nanostructures on the cell surface via enzymatic reactions. Following that, we highlight the use of enzymatic reactions for creating intercellular nanostructures. Finally, we provide a summary and outlook on the promises and future direction of this strategy. Our aim is to give an updated introduction to the use of enzymatic reaction in regulating intermolecular interactions, a phenomenon ubiquitous in biology but relatively less explored by chemists and materials scientists. Our goal is to stimulate new developments in this simple and versatile approach for addressing societal needs.

Enzymatic reactions in cells create precise nanoarchitectures, offering insights into cell biology through controllable nanoarchitectonics, as shown by numerous examples in this review.

GmAMT2.1/2.2-dependent ammonium nitrogen and metabolites shape rhizosphere microbiome assembly to mitigate cadmium toxicity.

Cadmium (Cd), a heavy metal, is negatively associated with plant growth. AMT (ammonium transporter) genes can confer Cd resistance and enhance nitrogen (N) uptake in soybeans. The potential of AMT genes to alleviate Cd toxicity by modulating rhizosphere microbiota remains unkonwn. Here, the rhizosphere microbial taxonomic and metabolic differences in three genotypes, i.e., double knockout and overexpression lines and wild type, were identified. The results showed that GmAMT2.1/2.2 genes could induce soybean to recruit beneficial microorganisms, such as Tumebacillus, Alicyclobacillus, and Penicillium, by altering metabolites. The bacterial, fungal, and cross-kingdom synthetic microbial communities (SynComs) formed by these microorganisms can help soybean resist Cd toxicity. The mechanisms by which SynComs help soybeans resist Cd stress include reducing Cd content, increasing ammonium (NH4+-N) uptake and regulating specific functional genes in soybeans. Overall, this study provides valuable insights for the developing microbial formulations that enhance Cd resistance in sustainable agriculture.

Unnatural Peptide Assemblies Rapidly Deplete Cholesterol and Potently Inhibit Cancer Cells.

Cholesterol-rich membranes play a pivotal role in cancer initiation and progression, necessitating innovative approaches to target these membranes for cancer inhibition. Here we report the first case of unnatural peptide (1) assemblies capable of depleting cholesterol and inhibiting cancer cells. Peptide 1 self-assembles into micelles and is rapidly taken up by cancer cells, especially when combined with an acute cholesterol-depleting agent (MßCD). Click chemistry has confirmed that 1 depletes cell membrane cholesterol. It localizes in membrane-rich organelles, including the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and lysosomes. Furthermore, 1 potently inhibits malignant cancer cells, working synergistically with cholesterol-lowering agents. Control experiments have confirmed that C-terminal capping and unnatural amino acid residues (i.e., BiP) are essential for both cholesterol depletion and potent cancer cell inhibition. This work highlights unnatural peptide assemblies as a promising platform for targeting the cell membrane in controlling cell fates.

Small peptides: novel targets for modulating plant-rhizosphere microbe interactions.

The crucial role of rhizosphere microbes in plant growth and their resilience to environmental stresses underscores the intricate communication between microbes and plants. Plants are equipped with a diverse set of signaling molecules that facilitate communication across different biological kingdoms, although our comprehension of these mechanisms is still evolving. Small peptides produced by plants (SPPs) and microbes (SPMs) play a pivotal role in intracellular signaling and are essential in orchestrating various plant development stages. In this review, we posit that SPPs and SPMs serve as crucial signaling agents for the bidirectional cross-kingdom communication between plants and rhizosphere microbes. We explore several potential mechanistic pathways through which this communication occurs. Additionally, we propose that leveraging small peptides, inspired by plant-rhizosphere microbe interactions, represents an innovative approach in the field of holobiont engineering.

Accelerating Cellular Uptake with Unnatural Amino Acid for Inhibiting Immunosuppressive Cancer Cells.

Targeting immunosuppressive metastatic cancer cells is a key challenge in therapy. We recently have shown that a rigid-rod aromatic, pBP-NBD, that responds to enzymes and kill immunosuppressive metastatic osteosarcoma (mOS) and castration resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) cells in mimetic bone microenvironment. However, pBP-NBD demonstrated moderate efficacy against CRPC cells. To enhance activity, we incorporated the unnatural amino acid L- or D-4,4'-biphenylalanine (L- or D-BiP) into pBP-NBD, drastically increasing cellular uptake and CRPC inhibition. Specifically, we inserted BiP into pBP-NBD to target mOS (Saos2 and SJSA1) and CRPC (VCaP and PC3) cells with overexpressed phosphatases. Our results show that the D-peptide backbone with an aspartate methyl diester at the C-terminal offers the highest activity against these immunosuppressive mOS and CRPC cells. Importantly, imaging shows that the peptide assemblies almost instantly enter the cells and accumulate primarily within the endoplasmic reticulum of Saos2, SJSA1, and PC3 cells and at the lysosomes of VCaP cells. By using BiP to boost cellular uptake and self-assembly within cancer cells, this work illustrates an unnatural hydrophobic amino acid as a versatile and effective residue to boost endocytosis of synthetic peptides for intracellular self-assembly.

Assessment of the Enzymatic Dephosphorylation Kinetics in the Assemblies of a Phosphopentapeptide that Forms Intranuclear Nanoribbons.

Although the formation of peptide assemblies catalyzed by alkaline phosphatase (ALP) has received increasing attention in inhibiting cancer cells, the detailed enzyme kinetics of the dephosphorylation of the corresponding phosphopeptide assemblies have yet to be determined. We recently discovered that assemblies from a phosphopentapeptide can form intracellular nanoribbons that kill induced pluripotent stem cells or osteosarcoma cells, but the kinetics of enzymatic dephosphorylation remain unknown. Thus, we chose to examine the enzyme kinetics of the dephosphorylation of the phosphopentapeptide [NBD-LLLLpY (1)] from concentrations below to above its critical micelle concentration (CMC). Our results show that the phosphopeptide exhibits a CMC of 75 µM in phosphate saline buffer, and the apparent Vmax and Km values of alkaline phosphatase catalyzed dephosphorylation are approximately 0.24 µM/s and 5.67 mM, respectively. Despite dephosphorylation remaining incomplete at 60 min in all the concentrations tested, dephosphorylation of the phosphopeptide at concentrations of 200 µM or above mainly results in nanoribbons, dephosphorylation at concentrations of CMC largely produces nanofibers, and dephosphorylation below the CMC largely generates nanoparticles. Moreover, the formation of nanoribbons correlates with the intranuclear accumulation of the pentapeptide. By providing the first examination of the enzymatic kinetics of phosphopeptide assemblies, this work further supports the notion that the assemblies of phosphopentapeptides can act as a new functional entity for controlling cell fates.

Hierarchical Assembly of Intrinsically Disordered Short Peptides.

The understanding on how short peptide assemblies transit from disorder to order remains limited due to the lack of atomistic structures. Here we report cryo-EM structure of the nanofibers short intrinsically disordered peptides (IDPs). Upon lowering pH or adding calcium ions, the IDP transitions from individual nanoparticles to nanofibers containing an aromatic core and a disordered periphery comprised of 2 to 5 amino acids. Protonating the phosphate or adding more metal ions further assembles the nanofibers into filament bundles. The assemblies of the IDP analogs with controlled chemistry, such as phosphorylation site, hydrophobic interactions, and sequences indicate that metal ions interact with the flexible periphery of the nanoparticles of the IDPs to form fibrils and enhance the interfibrillar interactions to form filament bundles. Illustrating that an IDP self-assembles from disorder to order, this work offers atomistic molecular insights to understand assemblies of short peptides driven by noncovalent interactions.

Rationale and Design of the Multicenter Catheter Ablation of Ventricular Tachycardia Before Transcatheter Pulmonary Valve Replacement in Repaired Tetralogy of Fallot Study.

Patients with repaired tetralogy of Fallot are at elevated risk for ventricular arrhythmia and sudden cardiac death. Over the past decade, the pathogenesis and natural history of ventricular tachycardia has become increasingly understood, and catheter ablation has emerged as an effective treatment modality. Concurrently, there has been great progress in the development of a versatile array of transcatheter valves that can be placed in the native right ventricular outflow tract for the treatment of long-standing pulmonary regurgitation. Although such valve platforms may eliminate the need for repeat cardiac operations, they may also impede catheter access to the myocardial substrates responsible for sustained macro-reentrant ventricular tachycardia. This manuscript provides the rationale and design of a recently devised multicenter study that will examine the clinical outcomes of a uniform, preemptive strategy to eliminate ventricular tachycardia substrates before transcatheter pulmonary valve implantation in patients with tetralogy of Fallot.

Autohydrolysis of Diglycine-Activated Succinic Esters Boosts Cellular Uptake.

Rapid cellular uptake of synthetic molecules remains a challenge, and the motif frequently employed to generate prodrugs, succinic ester, unfortunately lowers the efficacy of the desired drugs due to their slow ester hydrolysis and low cell entry. Here we show that succinic ester-containing diglycine drastically boosts the cellular uptake of supramolecular assemblies or prodrugs. Specifically, autohydrolysis of the diglycine-activated succinic esters turns the nanofibers of the conjugates of succinic ester and self-assembling motif into nanoparticles for fast cellular uptake. The autohydrolysis of diglycine-activated succinic esters and drug conjugates also restores the efficacy of the drugs. 2D nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) suggests that a "U-turn" of diglycine favors intramolecular hydrolysis of diglycine-activated succinic esters to promote autohydrolysis. As an example of rapid autohydrolysis of diglycine-activated succinic esters for instant cellular uptake, this work illustrates a nonenzymatic bond cleavage approach to develop effective therapeutics for intracellular targeting.

Meta-Analysis on the Clinical Outcomes With Polypills for Cardiovascular Disease Prevention.

Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) examining the outcomes of "polypill" therapy in cardiovascular disease prevention have yielded mixed results. We performed an electronic search through January 2023 for RCTs that examined the use of polypills for cardiovascular disease primary or secondary prevention. The primary outcome was the incidence of major adverse cardiac and cerebrovascular events (MACCEs). The final analysis included 11 RCTs with 25,389 patients; 12,791 patients were in the polypill arm, and 12,598 patients were in the control arm. The follow-up period ranged from 1 to 5.6 years. Polypill therapy was associated with a lower risk of MACCE (5.8% vs 7.7%; risk ratio [RR] 0.78, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.67 to 0.91). The reduction of MACCE risk was consistent in both primary and secondary prevention. Polypill therapy was associated with a lower incidence of cardiovascular mortality (2.1% vs 3%; RR 0.69, 95% CI 0.55 to 0.87), myocardial infarction (2.3% vs 3.2%; RR 0.72, 95% CI 0.61 to 0.84) and stroke (0.9% vs 1.6%; RR 0.62, 95% CI 0.42 to 0.90). Polypill therapy was associated with a higher degree of adherence. There was no difference between both groups in the incidence of serious adverse events (16.1% vs 15.9%; RR 1.12, 95% CI 0.93 to 1.36). In conclusion, we found that a polypill strategy was associated with a lower incidence of cardiac events and higher adherence, without an increased incidence of adverse events. This benefit was consistent for both primary and secondary prevention.

Managing Myocardial Bridge and Right Ventricular Outflow Tract Obstruction in an Adolescent With Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy.

We report a case of symptomatic myocardial bridge in an adolescent with dynamic right ventricular outflow tract obstruction and history of congenital pulmonary valve stenosis as well as hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Definitive treatment was surgical infundibular myectomy and coronary unroofing, resulting in improvement in right ventricular outflow tract gradient and ischemic symptoms.

Cell spheroid creation by transcytotic intercellular gelation.

Cell spheroids bridge the discontinuity between in vitro systems and in vivo animal models. However, inducing cell spheroids by nanomaterials remains an inefficient and poorly understood process. Here we use cryogenic electron microscopy to determine the atomic structure of helical nanofibres self-assembled from enzyme-responsive D-peptides and fluorescent imaging to show that the transcytosis of D-peptides induces intercellular nanofibres/gels that potentially interact with fibronectin to enable cell spheroid formation. Specifically, D-phosphopeptides, being protease resistant, undergo endocytosis and endosomal dephosphorylation to generate helical nanofibres. On secretion to the cell surface, these nanofibres form intercellular gels that act as artificial matrices and facilitate the fibrillogenesis of fibronectins to induce cell spheroids. No spheroid formation occurs without endo- or exocytosis, phosphate triggers or shape switching of the peptide assemblies. This study-coupling transcytosis and morphological transformation of peptide assemblies-demonstrates a potential approach for regenerative medicine and tissue engineering.

Catheter-based Interventions to Reduce or Modify Surgical Risk in High-Risk Adult Congenital Heart Disease Patients.

The field of adult congenital heart disease has changed greatly over the past sixty years. As patients are now surviving longer into adulthood due to various improvements in surgical technique and medical technology, the demographic of patients with congenital heart disease (CHD) has changed, such that there are now more adults with CHD than there are children with CHD. This older and more medically complex population needs more interventions to treat residual defects or sequelae of their initial surgeries, and many of these patients are now deemed high risk for surgery. When the surgical risk becomes too great, either due to patient complexity, surgical complexity, or both, then transcatheter procedures may have a role in either mitigating or avoiding the risk altogether.

Intranuclear Nanoribbons for Selective Killing of Osteosarcoma Cells.

Herein, we show intranuclear nanoribbons formed upon dephosphorylation of leucine-rich L- or D-phosphopeptide catalyzed by alkaline phosphatase (ALP) to selectively kill osteosarcoma cells. Being dephosphorylated by ALP, the peptides are first transformed into micelles and then converted into nanoribbons. The peptides/assemblies first aggregate on cell membranes, then enter cells via endocytosis, and finally accumulate in nuclei (mainly in nucleoli). Proteomics analysis suggests that the assemblies interact with histone proteins. The peptides kill osteosarcoma cells rapidly and are nontoxic to normal cells. Moreover, the repeated stimulation of the osteosarcoma cells by the peptides sensitizes the cancer cells rather than inducing resistance. This work not only illustrates a novel mechanism for nucleus targeting, but may also pave a new way for selectively killing osteosarcoma cells and minimizing drug resistance.

Right coronary artery originating from the left ventricular outflow tract diagnosed after a Ross procedure: a case report.

Background: Anomalous coronary origin from the left ventricular outflow tract (LVOT) is an exceedingly rare condition thought to be associated with the bicuspid aortic valve (BAV). While the malignant presentation of this entity has been described, its pathophysiology and diagnostic evaluation are poorly understood. Case summary: A 33-year-old woman status post Ross procedure in childhood for congenital aortic stenosis due to BAV with presumed common origin of right and left coronary arteries based on single coronary ostium seen on aortic valve inspection, presented with symptomatic pulmonary regurgitation and stenosis. Invasive left coronary angiography revealed retrograde filling of the right coronary artery (RCA) with systolic washout of contrast indicating a patent RCA ostium. No RCA ostium was found on aortic root injection, but an injection into the LVOT revealed an RCA ostium below the aortic valve. Selective RCA angiography revealed pulsatile antegrade flow down the RCA occurring during systole. There was no anatomic RCA stenosis. We proceeded with valve-in-valve TcPVR. The patient had significant improvement of symptoms and RCA reimplantation was hence deferred. Discussion: This case is the first of an anomalous coronary artery arising from the LVOT diagnosed in a patient after the Ross procedure. Our angiograms shed light on the unusual physiology of coronary filling during systole and ischaemia arising from inadequate perfusion gradient between the left ventricle and the coronary during systole, leading to collateralization despite the lack of anatomic stenosis. We urge consideration of this potentially malignant entity in any symptomatic patient, especially with concomitant BAV.

Enzyme Responsive Rigid-Rod Aromatics Target "Undruggable" Phosphatases to Kill Cancer Cells in a Mimetic Bone Microenvironment.

Bone metastasis remains a challenge in cancer treatment. Here we show enzymatic responsive rigid-rod aromatics acting as the substrates of "undruggable" phosphatases to kill cancer cells in a mimetic bone microenvironment. By phosphorylation and conjugating nitrobenzoxadiazole (NBD) to hydroxybiphenylcarboxylate (BP), we obtained pBP-NBD (1P) as a substrate of both acid and alkaline phosphatases. 1P effectively kills both metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer cells (mCRPCs) and osteoblast mimic cells in their coculture. 1P enters Saos2 almost instantly to target the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of the cells. Co-culturing with Saos2 cells boosts the cellular uptake of 1P by mCRPCs. Cryo-EM reveals the nanotube structures of both 1P (2.4 Å resolution, pH 5.6) and 1 (2.2 Å resolution, pH 7.4). The helical packing of both nanotubes is identical, held together by strong pi-stacking interactions. Besides reporting the atomistic structure of nanotubes formed by the assembly of rigid-rod aromatics, this work expands the pool of molecules for designing EISA substrates that selectively target TME.

Suture connection of overlapping covered CP stents for transcatheter treatment of sinus venosus atrial septal defect with anomalous pulmonary venous connection.

Transcatheter correction of a superior sinus venosus defect and partial anomalous pulmonary venous connection with covered stents is a feasible alternative to surgical repair in select patients. Commercially available balloon-expandable covered stents may be of inadequate length to treat some patients. This may require multiple stents to be placed, which increases the risk of stent migration or embolization. A modification of this technique utilizing two interdigitating covered stents secured together with sutures is described, allowing for increased stability of a long stent complex. One failed case and a second successful case are presented.

Enzymatic Noncovalent Synthesis for Targeting Subcellular Organelles.

Enzymatic noncovalent synthesis (ENS) exploits enzymatic reactions to produce spatially organized higher-order supramolecular assemblies that modulate cellular processes. While ENS is a general mechanism to create higher-order assemblies of proteins for diverse cellular functions, the exploration of ENS of other bioactive molecules, such as peptides or small organic molecules, is rather limited. Since ENS generates non-diffusive supramolecular assemblies locally, it provides a unique approach to targeting subcellular organelles. In this Review, we highlight the recent progress of the application of ENS of peptide assemblies for targeting subcellular organelles. After a brief introduction of the concept of ENS, we introduce the case of generating artificial filaments by ENS in cell cytosol, then discuss the use of ENS for targeting endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, and lysosomes, and finally we describe the targeting of nucleus by ENS. We hope to illustrate the promise of ENS, as a localized molecular process in an open system, for understanding diseases, controlling cell behaviors, and developing new therapeutics.

Enzyme-Responsive Peptide Thioesters for Targeting Golgi Apparatus.

The Golgi apparatus (GA) is the hub of intracellular trafficking, but selectively targeting GA remains a challenge. We show an unconventional types of peptide thioesters, consisting of an aminoethyl thioester and acting as substrates of thioesterases, for instantly targeting the GA of cells. The peptide thioesters, above or below their critical micelle concentrations, enter cells mainly via caveolin-mediated endocytosis or macropinocytosis, respectively. After being hydrolyzed by GA-associated thioesterases, the resulting thiopeptides form dimers and accumulate in the GA. After saturating the GA, the thiopeptides are enriched in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Their buildup in ER and GA disrupts protein trafficking, thus leading to cell death via multiple pathways. The peptide thioesters target the GA of a wide variety of cells, including human, murine, and Drosophila cells. Changing d-diphenylalanine to l-diphenylalanine in the peptide maintains the GA-targeting ability. In addition, targeting GA redirects protein (e.g., NRAS) distribution. This work illustrates a thioesterase-responsive and redox-active molecular platform for targeting the GA and controlling cell fates.

A Self-Assembling Probe for Imaging the States of Golgi Apparatus in Live Single Cells.

Despite the enormous progress in genomics and proteomics, it is still challenging to assess the states of organelles in living cells with high spatiotemporal resolution. Based on our recent finding of enzyme-instructed self-assembly of a thiophosphopeptide that targets the Golgi Apparatus (GA) instantly, we use the thiophosphopeptide, which is enzymatically responsive and redox active, as an integrative probe for revealing the state of the GA of live cells at the single cell level. By imaging the probe in the GA of live cells over time, our results show that the accumulation of the probe at the GA depends on cell types. By comparison to a conventional Golgi probe, this self-assembling probe accumulates at the GA much faster and are sensitive to the expression of alkaline phosphatases. In addition, subtle changes of the fluorophore results in slightly different GA responses. This work illustrates a novel class of active molecular probes that combine enzyme-instructed self-assembly and redox reaction for high-resolution imaging of the states of subcellular organelles over a large area and extended times.