High-throughput 3D microvessel-on-a-chip model to study defective angiogenesis in systemic sclerosis.

In early systemic sclerosis (Scleroderma, SSc), the vasculature is impaired. Although the exact etiology of endothelial cell damage in SSc remains unclear, it is hypothesized that endothelial to mesenchymal transition (EndoMT) plays a key role. To perform physiologically relevant angiogenic studies, we set out to develop an angiogenesis-on-a-chip platform that is suitable for assessing disease parameters that are relevant to SSc and other vasculopathies. In the model, we substituted Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS) with Human Serum without impairing the stability of the culture. We showed that 3D microvessels and angiogenic factor-induced sprouts exposed to key pro-inflammatory and pro-fibrotic cytokines (TNFα and TGFß) undergo structural alterations consisting of destructive vasculopathy (loss of small vessels). We also showed that these detrimental effects can be prevented by compound-mediated inhibition of TGFß-ALK5 signaling or addition of a TNFα neutralizing antibody to the 3D cultures. This demonstrates that our in vitro model is suitable for compound testing and identification of new drugs that can protect from microvascular destabilization or regression in disease-mimicking conditions. To support this, we demonstrated that sera obtained from SSc patients can exert an anti-angiogenic effect on the 3D vessel model, opening the doors to screening for potential SSc drugs, enabling direct patient translatability and personalization of drug treatment.

Development of mAb-based polyglutamine-dependent and polyglutamine length-independent huntingtin quantification assays with cross-site validation.

Huntington's disease (HD) is caused by an expansion of the CAG trinucleotide repeat domain in the huntingtin gene that results in expression of a mutant huntingtin protein (mHTT) containing an expanded polyglutamine tract in the amino terminus. A number of therapeutic approaches that aim to reduce mHTT expression either locally in the CNS or systemically are in clinical development. We have previously described sensitive and selective assays that measure human HTT proteins either in a polyglutamine-independent (detecting both mutant expanded and non-expanded proteins) or in a polyglutamine length-dependent manner (detecting the disease-causing polyglutamine repeats) on the electrochemiluminescence Meso Scale Discovery detection platform. These original assays relied upon polyclonal antibodies. To ensure an accessible and sustainable resource for the HD field, we developed similar assays employing monoclonal antibodies. We demonstrate that these assays have equivalent sensitivity compared to our previous assays through the evaluation of cellular and animal model systems, as well as HD patient biosamples. We also demonstrate cross-site validation of these assays, allowing direct comparison of studies performed in geographically distinct laboratories.

Assessment of p.Phe508del-CFTR functional restoration in pediatric primary cystic fibrosis airway epithelial cells.

BACKGROUND: Mutations in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator (CFTR) gene can reduce function of the CFTR ion channel activity and impair cellular chloride secretion. The gold standard method to assess CFTR function of ion transport using the Ussing chamber requires a high number of airway epithelial cells grown at air-liquid interface, limiting the application of this method for high throughput screening of potential therapeutic compounds in primary airway epithelial cells (pAECs) featuring less common CFTR mutations. This study assessed an alternative approach, using a small scale halide assay that can be adapted for a personalized high throughput setting to analyze CFTR function of pAEC. METHODS: Pediatric pAECs derived from children with CF (pAECCF) were established and expanded as monolayer cultures, before seeding into 96-well plates for the halide assay. Cells were then transduced with an adenoviral construct containing yellow fluorescent protein (eYFP) reporter gene, alone or in combination with either wild-type CFTR (WT-CFTR) or p.Phe508del CFTR. Four days post transduction, cells were stimulated with forskolin and genistein, and assessed for quenching of the eYFP signal following injection of iodide solution into the assay media. RESULTS: Data showed that pAECCF can express eYFP at high efficiency following transduction with the eYFP construct. The halide assay was able to discriminate functional restoration of CFTR in pAECCF treated with either WT-CFTR construct or the positive controls syntaxin 8 and B-cell receptor-associated protein 31 shRNAs. SIGNIFICANCE: The current study demonstrates that the halide assay can be adapted for pediatric pAECCF to evaluate restoration of CFTR function. With the ongoing development of small molecules to modulate the folding and/or activity of various mutated CFTR proteins, this halide assay presents a small-scale personalized screening platform that could assess therapeutic potential of molecules across a broad range of CFTR mutations.

Quantification of huntingtin protein species in Huntington's disease patient leukocytes using optimised electrochemiluminescence immunoassays.

BACKGROUND: Huntington's disease (HD) is an autosomal dominant neurodegenerative condition caused by an expanded CAG repeat in the gene encoding huntingtin (HTT). Optimizing peripheral quantification of huntingtin throughout the course of HD is valuable not only to illuminate the natural history and pathogenesis of disease, but also to detect peripheral effects of drugs in clinical trial. RATIONALE: We previously demonstrated that mutant HTT (mHTT) was significantly elevated in purified HD patient leukocytes compared with controls and that these levels track disease progression. Our present study investigates whether the same result can be achieved with a simpler and more scalable collection technique that is more suitable for clinical trials. METHODS: We collected whole blood at 133 patient visits in two sample sets and generated peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Levels of mHTT, as well as N-, and C-terminal and mid-region huntingtin were measured in the PBMCs using ELISA-based Meso Scale Discovery (MSD) electrochemiluminescence immunoassay platforms, and we evaluated the relationship between different HTT species, disease stage, and brain atrophy on magnetic resonance imaging. CONCLUSIONS: The assays were sensitive and accurate. We confirm our previous findings that mHTT increases with advancing disease stage in patient PBMCs, this time using a simple collection protocol and scalable assay.

Quantification assays for total and polyglutamine-expanded huntingtin proteins.

The expansion of a CAG trinucleotide repeat in the huntingtin gene, which produces huntingtin protein with an expanded polyglutamine tract, is the cause of Huntington's disease (HD). Recent studies have reported that RNAi suppression of polyglutamine-expanded huntingtin (mutant HTT) in HD animal models can ameliorate disease phenotypes. A key requirement for such preclinical studies, as well as eventual clinical trials, aimed to reduce mutant HTT exposure is a robust method to measure HTT protein levels in select tissues. We have developed several sensitive and selective assays that measure either total human HTT or polyglutamine-expanded human HTT proteins on the electrochemiluminescence Meso Scale Discovery detection platform with an increased dynamic range over other methods. In addition, we have developed an assay to detect endogenous mouse and rat HTT proteins in pre-clinical models of HD to monitor effects on the wild type protein of both allele selective and non-selective interventions. We demonstrate the application of these assays to measure HTT protein in several HD in vitro cellular and in vivo animal model systems as well as in HD patient biosamples. Furthermore, we used purified recombinant HTT proteins as standards to quantitate the absolute amount of HTT protein in such biosamples.

The second AT-hook of the architectural transcription factor HMGA2 is determinant for nuclear localization and function.

High Mobility Group A (HMGA) is a family of architectural nuclear factors which play an important role in neoplastic transformation. HMGA proteins are multifunctional factors that associate both with DNA and nuclear proteins that have been involved in several nuclear processes including transcription. HMGA localization is exclusively nuclear but, to date, the mechanism of nuclear import for these proteins remains unknown. Here, we report the identification and characterization of a nuclear localization signal (NLS) for HMGA2, a member of the HMGA family. The NLS overlaps with the second of the three AT-hooks, the DNA-binding domains characteristic for this group of proteins. The functionality of this NLS was demonstrated by its ability to target a heterologous beta-galactosidase/green fluorescent protein fusion protein to the nucleus. Mutations to alanine of basic residues within the second AT-hook resulted in inhibition of HMGA2 nuclear localization and impairment of its function in activating the cyclin A promoter. In addition, HMGA2 was shown to directly interact with the nuclear import receptor importin-alpha2 via the second AT-hook. HMGA proteins are overexpressed and rearranged in a variety of tumors; our findings can thus help elucidating their role in neoplastic transformation.

The AT-hook of the chromatin architectural transcription factor high mobility group A1a is arginine-methylated by protein arginine methyltransferase 6.

The HMGA1a protein belongs to the high mobility group A (HMGA) family of architectural nuclear factors, a group of proteins that plays an important role in chromatin dynamics. HMGA proteins are multifunctional factors that associate both with DNA and nuclear proteins that have been involved in several nuclear processes, such as transcriptional regulation, viral integration, DNA repair, RNA processing, and chromatin remodeling. The activity of HMGA proteins is finely modulated by a variety of post-translational modifications. Arginine methylation was recently demonstrated to occur on HMGA1a protein, and it correlates with the apoptotic process and neoplastic progression. Methyltransferases responsible for these modifications are unknown. Here we show that the protein arginine methyltransferase PRMT6 specifically methylates HMGA1a protein both in vitro and in vivo. By mass spectrometry, the sites of methylation were unambiguously mapped to Arg(57) and Arg(59), two residues which are embedded in the second AT-hook, a region critical for both protein-DNA and protein-protein interactions and whose modification may cause profound alterations in the HMGA network. The in vivo association of HMGA and PRMT6 place this yet functionally uncharacterized methyltransferase in the well established functional context of the chromatin structure organization.

Discovering high mobility group A molecular partners in tumour cells.

DNA-based activities rely on an extremely coordinated sequence of events performed by several chromatin-associated proteins which act in concert. High Mobility Group A (HMGA) proteins are non-histone architectural nuclear factors that participate in the regulation of specific genes but they are also believed to have a more general role in chromatin dynamics. The peculiarity of these proteins is their flexibility, both in terms of DNA-binding and in protein-protein interactions. Since these proteins act as core elements in the assembly of multiprotein complexes called enhanceosomes, and have already displayed the ability to interact with several different proteins, we started a proteomic approach for the systematic identification of their molecular partners. By a combination of affinity chromatography, two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and mass spectrometry we have identified about twenty putative HMGA interactors which could be roughly assigned to three different classes: mRNA processing proteins, chromatin remodelling related factors and structural proteins. Direct HMGA interaction with some of these proteins was confirmed by glutathione-S-transferase pull-down assays and the HMGA domain involved was mapped. Blot-overlay experiments reveal that members of the HMGA family share most of their molecular partners but, interestingly, it seems that there are some cell-type specific partners. Taken together, these experimental data indicate that HMGA proteins are highly connected nodes in the chromatin protein network. Since these proteins are strongly implicated with cancer development, the identification of molecules able to perturb the HMGA molecular network could be a possible tool to interfere with their oncogenic activity.

Differential HMGA expression and post-translational modifications in prostatic tumor cells.

The HMGA architectural nuclear factors are involved in chromatin dynamics and their overexpression has been strongly linked to the neoplastic transformation process. Here we investigate the expression and post-translational modifications (PTMs) of HMGA proteins (HMGA1a, HMGA1b and HMGA2) in the rat prostatic cancer Dunning model (G, AT-1, and MAT-Ly-Lu cell lines). We demonstrate the expression of HMGA2, in addition to HMGA1a and HMGA1b, in both the anaplastic cell lines AT-1 and MAT-Ly-Lu and an extremely specific HMGA1a mono-methylation only in the most metastatic cell line MAT-Ly-Lu. The HMGA ectopic expression in HMGA-negative Dunning G cells does not significantly alter their growth ability, suggesting that, although HMGA expression is necessary for the progression of neoplastic transformation in several cellular models, in these cells it is not sufficient. These data suggest exploring HMGA2 as a potential marker in human prostate tumor and moreover indicate PTMs as an additional tool in the staging of tumor progression.

Nuclear phosphoproteins HMGA and their relationship with chromatin structure and cancer.

The structural characteristics of the three nuclear phosphoproteins of the high mobility group A family are outlined and related to their participation in chromatin structure alteration in many biological processes such as gene expression, neoplastic transformation, differentiation, and apoptosis. The elevated expression of these proteins in tumor cells and their post-translational modifications, such as phosphorylation, acetylation and methylation, are discussed and suggested as suitable targets for cancer chemotherapy.

Transcriptional activation of the cyclin A gene by the architectural transcription factor HMGA2.

The HMGA2 protein belongs to the HMGA family of architectural transcription factors, which play an important role in chromatin organization. HMGA proteins are overexpressed in several experimental and human tumors and have been implicated in the process of neoplastic transformation. Hmga2 knockout results in the pygmy phenotype in mice and in a decreased growth rate of embryonic fibroblasts, thus indicating a role for HMGA2 in cell proliferation. Here we show that HMGA2 associates with the E1A-regulated transcriptional repressor p120(E4F), interfering with p120(E4F) binding to the cyclin A promoter. Ectopic expression of HMGA2 results in the activation of the cyclin A promoter and induction of the endogenous cyclin A gene. In addition, chromatin immunoprecipitation experiments show that HMGA2 associates with the cyclin A promoter only when the gene is transcriptionally activated. These data identify the cyclin A gene as a cellular target for HMGA2 and, for the first time, suggest a mechanism for HMGA2-dependent cell cycle regulation.

Hmga2 promoter analysis in transgenic mice.

HMGA2(2) belongs to the high mobility group A (HMGA) family of architectural transcription factors which participate in a wide variety of nuclear processes ranging from transcription to recombination, playing an important role in chromatin remodelling. HMGA2 is expressed during embryogenesis but not by adult somatic tissues, yet it becomes re-expressed following neoplastic transformation. A role in development is underscored by the finding that the inactivation of the Hmga2 gene is responsible for the murine pygmy phenotype. To elucidate mechanisms that control HMGA2 expression, we have previously cloned the gene and identified functional elements involved in its regulation. In this paper, transgenic mice were generated to define genomic regions involved in Hmga2 developmental and tissue-specific transcriptional regulation. A genomic region from -8.1 to -3.7kb upstream from the initiation site has been found to recapitulate most of the spatial and temporal endogenous Hmga2 gene expression.

Molecular dissection of the architectural transcription factor HMGA2.

HMGA2 protein belongs to the High Mobility Group A (HMGA) family of architectural transcription factors. These proteins establish a network of protein-protein and protein-DNA interactions resulting in the formation of enhanceosomes at promoters and enhancers regulating the expression of several genes. HMGA2 dysregulation, as a result of specific chromosomal rearrangements, has been identified in a variety of common benign mesenchymal tumors, and transgenic mice expressing a truncated form of HMGA2 protein demonstrated a causal relationship between the expression of the HMGA2 protein and tumorigenesis. In this paper, using several recombinant mutant proteins, we have investigated the role played by the different domains of HMGA2 in protein-protein and protein-DNA interaction. Using the IFN-beta gene as a model, we have shown that a short region of HMGA2, comprising the second DNA-binding domain, is critical for enhancing the NF-kappaB complex formation, for binding to the PRDII element, and also for protein-protein interaction with the NF-kappaB p50 subunit. Moreover, we have analyzed the interaction of HMGA2 mutant proteins with different DNA targets demonstrating that the absence of the C-terminal tail alters HMGA2/DNA complexes in a subset of DNA sequences. Our results suggest possible implications for the role of HMGA2 in tumorigenesis.

A polypyrimidine/polypurine tract within the Hmga2 minimal promoter: a common feature of many growth-related genes.

HMGA2 is an architectural nuclear factor which plays an important role in development and tumorigenesis, but mechanisms regulating its expression are largely unknown. The proximal promoters of the mouse and human genes coding for HMGA2 contain a conserved polypyrimidine/polypurine (ppyr/ppur) element which constitutes a multiple binding site for Sp1 and Sp3 transcription factors. In the present study we report that this region can adopt a single-stranded DNA conformation, as demonstrated in vitro by S1 nuclease sensitivity on supercoiled plasmids, indicative of an intramolecular triple-helical H-DNA structure. Moreover, we find that PTB (polypyrimidine tract binding protein), a member of the hnRNP family, binds the pyrimidine strand of Hmga2 as well as similar ppyr/ppur elements of the c-Ki-ras (R.Y) and c-myc P1 promoters. Transfection experiments indicate that non-B-DNA conformers of the ppyr/ppur tract of the Hmga2 promoter contribute to positive transcriptional activity. We propose a transcriptional mechanism, acting on the Hmga2 non-B-DNA structure and functioning through interconversion between double-stranded and single-stranded DNA, that seems to be adopted by an increasing number of genes, mainly growth-related.