Exploring an Intracellular Allosteric Site of CC-Chemokine Receptor 4 from 3D Models, Probe Simulations, and Mutagenesis.

We applied our previously developed probe confined dynamic mapping protocol, which combines enhanced sampling molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and fragment-based approaches, to identify the binding site of GSK2239633A (N-[[3-[[3-[(5-chlorothiophen-2-yl)sulfonylamino]-4-methoxyindazol-1-yl]methyl]phenyl]methyl]-2-hydroxy-2-methylpropanamide), a selective CC-chemokine receptor type 4 (CCR4) negative allosteric modulator, using CCR4 homology and AlphaFold models. By comparing the performance across five computational models, we identified conserved (K3108.49 and Y3047.53) and non-conserved (M2436.36) residue hotspots for GSK2239633A binding, which were validated by mutagenesis and bioluminescence resonance energy transfer assay. Further analysis of 3D models and MD simulations highlighted the pair of residues 6.36 and 7.56 that might account for antagonist selectivity among chemokine receptors. Our in silico protocol provides a promising approach for characterizing ligand binding sites in membrane proteins, considering receptor dynamics and adaptability and guiding protein template selection for ligand design.

Structural basis for the ligand recognition and signaling of free fatty acid receptors.

Free fatty acid receptors 1 to 4 (FFA1 to FFA4) are class A G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). FFA1 to FFA3 share substantial sequence similarity, whereas FFA4 is unrelated. However, FFA1 and FFA4 are activated by long-chain fatty acids, while FFA2 and FFA3 respond to short-chain fatty acids generated by intestinal microbiota. FFA1, FFA2, and FFA4 are potential drug targets for metabolic and inflammatory conditions. Here, we determined the active structures of FFA1 and FFA4 bound to docosahexaenoic acid, FFA4 bound to the synthetic agonist TUG-891, and butyrate-bound FFA2, each complexed with an engineered heterotrimeric Gq protein (miniGq), by cryo-electron microscopy. Together with computational simulations and mutagenesis studies, we elucidated the similarities and differences in the binding modes of fatty acid ligands to their respective GPCRs. Our findings unveiled distinct mechanisms of receptor activation and G protein coupling. We anticipate that these outcomes will facilitate structure-based drug development and underpin future research on this group of GPCRs.

ß-Arrestin-dependent and -independent endosomal G protein activation by the vasopressin type 2 receptor.

The vasopressin type 2 receptor (V2R) is an essential G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) in renal regulation of water homeostasis. Upon stimulation, the V2R activates Gαs and Gαq/11, which is followed by robust recruitment of ß-arrestins and receptor internalization into endosomes. Unlike canonical GPCR signaling, the ß-arrestin association with the V2R does not terminate Gαs activation, and thus, Gαs-mediated signaling is sustained while the receptor is internalized. Here, we demonstrate that this V2R ability to co-interact with G protein/ß-arrestin and promote endosomal G protein signaling is not restricted to Gαs, but also involves Gαq/11. Furthermore, our data imply that ß-arrestins potentiate Gαs/Gαq/11 activation at endosomes rather than terminating their signaling. Surprisingly, we found that the V2R internalizes and promote endosomal G protein activation independent of ß-arrestins to a minor degree. These new observations challenge the current model of endosomal GPCR signaling and suggest that this event can occur in both ß-arrestin-dependent and -independent manners.

Structural basis for the ligand recognition and signaling of free fatty acid receptors.

Free fatty acid receptors 1-4 (FFA1-4) are class A G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). FFA1-3 share substantial sequence similarity whereas FFA4 is unrelated. Despite this FFA1 and FFA4 are activated by the same range of long chain fatty acids (LCFAs) whilst FFA2 and FFA3 are instead activated by short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) generated by the intestinal microbiota. Each of FFA1, 2 and 4 are promising targets for novel drug development in metabolic and inflammatory conditions. To gain insights into the basis of ligand interactions with, and molecular mechanisms underlying activation of, FFAs by LCFAs and SCFAs, we determined the active structures of FFA1 and FFA4 bound to the polyunsaturated LCFA docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), FFA4 bound to the synthetic agonist TUG-891, as well as SCFA butyrate-bound FFA2, each complexed with an engineered heterotrimeric Gq protein (miniGq), by cryo-electron microscopy. Together with computational simulations and mutagenesis studies, we elucidated the similarities and differences in the binding modes of fatty acid ligands with varying chain lengths to their respective GPCRs. Our findings unveil distinct mechanisms of receptor activation and G protein coupling. We anticipate that these outcomes will facilitate structure-based drug development and underpin future research to understand allosteric modulation and biased signaling of this group of GPCRs.

ß-arrestin-dependent and -independent endosomal G protein activation by the vasopressin type 2 receptor.

The vasopressin type 2 receptor (V2R) is an essential GPCR in renal regulation of water homeostasis. Upon stimulation, the V2R activates Gαs and Gαq/11, which is followed by robust recruitment of ß-arrestins and receptor internalization into endosomes. Unlike canonical GPCR signaling, the ß-arrestin association with the V2R does not terminate Gαs activation, and thus, Gαs-mediated signaling is sustained while the receptor is internalized. Here, we demonstrate that this V2R ability to co-interact with G protein/ß-arrestin and promote endosomal G protein signaling is not restricted to Gαs, but also involves Gαq/11. Furthermore, our data implies that ß-arrestins potentiate Gαs/Gαq/11 activation at endosomes rather than terminating their signaling. Surprisingly, we found that the V2R internalizes and promote endosomal G protein activation independent of ß-arrestins to a minor degree. These new observations challenge the current model of endosomal GPCR signaling and suggest that this event can occur in both ß-arrestin-dependent and -independent manners.

Characterization of the mechanism of bile salt hydrolase substrate specificity by experimental and computational analyses.

Bile salt hydrolases (BSHs) are currently being investigated as target enzymes for metabolic regulators in humans and as growth promoters in farm animals. Understanding structural features underlying substrate specificity is necessary for inhibitor design. Here, we used a multidisciplinary workflow including mass spectrometry, mutagenesis, molecular dynamic simulations, machine learning, and crystallography to demonstrate substrate specificity in Lactobacillus salivarius BSH, the most abundant enzyme in human and farm animal intestines. We show the preference of substrates with a taurine head and a dehydroxylated sterol ring for hydrolysis. A regression model that correlates the relative rates of hydrolysis of various substrates in various enzyme mutants with the residue-substrate interaction energies guided the identification of structural determinants of substrate binding and specificity. In addition, we found T208 from another BSH protomer regulating the hydrolysis. The designed workflow can be used for fast and comprehensive characterization of enzymes with a broad range of substrates.

Oxidation modulates LINGO2-induced inactivation of large conductance, Ca2+-activated potassium channels.

Ca2+ and voltage-activated K+ (BK) channels are ubiquitous ion channels that can be modulated by accessory proteins, including ß, γ, and LINGO1 BK subunits. In this study, we utilized a combination of site-directed mutagenesis, patch clamp electrophysiology, and molecular modeling to investigate if the biophysical properties of BK currents were affected by coexpression of LINGO2 and to examine how they are regulated by oxidation. We demonstrate that LINGO2 is a regulator of BK channels, since its coexpression with BK channels yields rapid inactivating currents, the activation of which is shifted ∼-30 mV compared to that of BKα currents. Furthermore, we show the oxidation of BK:LINGO2 currents (by exposure to epifluorescence illumination or chloramine-T) abolished inactivation. The effect of illumination depended on the presence of GFP, suggesting that it released free radicals which oxidized cysteine or methionine residues. In addition, the oxidation effects were resistant to treatment with the cysteine-specific reducing agent DTT, suggesting that methionine rather than cysteine residues may be involved. Our data with synthetic LINGO2 tail peptides further demonstrate that the rate of inactivation was slowed when residues M603 or M605 were oxidized, and practically abolished when both were oxidized. Taken together, these data demonstrate that both methionine residues in the LINGO2 tail mediate the effect of oxidation on BK:LINGO2 channels. Our molecular modeling suggests that methionine oxidation reduces the lipophilicity of the tail, thus preventing it from occluding the pore of the BK channel.

Intermolecular Interactions in G Protein-Coupled Receptor Allosteric Sites at the Membrane Interface from Molecular Dynamics Simulations and Quantum Chemical Calculations.

Allosteric modulators are called promising candidates in G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) drug development by displaying subtype selectivity and more specific receptor modulation. Among the allosteric sites known to date, cavities at the receptor-lipid interface represent an uncharacteristic binding location that raises many questions about the ligand interactions and stability, the binding site structure, and how all of these are affected by lipid molecules. In this work, we analyze interactions in the allosteric sites of the PAR2, C5aR1, and GCGR receptors in three lipid compositions using molecular dynamics simulations. In addition, we performed quantum chemical calculations involving the symmetry-adapted perturbation theory (SAPT) and the natural population analysis to quantify the strength of intermolecular interactions. We show that besides classical hydrogen bonds, weak polar interactions such as O-HC, O-Br, and long-range electrostatics with the backbone amides contribute to the stability of allosteric modulators at the receptor-lipid interface. The allosteric cavities are detectable in various membrane compositions. The availability of polar atoms for interactions in such cavities can be assessed by water molecules from simulations. Although ligand-lipid interactions are weak, lipid tails play a role in ligand binding pose stability and the size of allosteric cavities. We discuss physicochemical aspects of ligand binding at the receptor-lipid interface and suggest a compound library enriched by weak donor groups for ligand search in such sites.

Luminogenic HiBiT Peptide-Based NanoBRET Ligand Binding Assays for Melatonin Receptors.

The two human melatonin receptors MT1 and MT2, which belong to the G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) family, are important drug targets with approved indications for circadian rhythm- and sleep-related disorders and major depression. Currently, most of the pharmacological studies were performed using [3H]melatonin and 2-[125I]iodomelatonin (2-[125I]-MLT) radioligands. Recently, NanoLuc-based bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (NanoBRET) monitoring competitive binding between fluorescent tracers and unmodified test compounds has emerged as a sensitive, nonradioactive alternative for quantifying GPCR ligand engagement on the surface of living cells in equilibrium and real time. However, developing such assays for the two melatonin receptors depends on the availability of fluorescent tracers, which has been challenging predominantly owing to their narrow ligand entry channel and small ligand binding pocket. Here, we generated a set of melatonergic fluorescent tracers and used NanoBRET to evaluate their engagement with MT1 and MT2 receptors that are genetically fused to an N-terminal luminogenic HiBiT-peptide. We identified several nonselective and subtype-selective tracers. Among the selective tracers, PBI-8238 exhibited high nanomolar affinity to MT1, and PBI-8192 exhibited low nanomolar affinity to MT2. The pharmacological profiles of both tracers were in good agreement with those obtained with the current standard 2-[125I]-MLT radioligand. Molecular docking and mutagenesis studies suggested the binding mode of PBI-8192 in MT2 and its selectivity over MT1. In conclusion, we describe the development of the first nonradioactive, real-time binding assays for melatonin receptors expressed at the cell surface of living cells that are likely to accelerate drug discovery for melatonin receptors.

Investigating the Structure-Activity Relationship of 1,2,4-Triazine G-Protein-Coupled Receptor 84 (GPR84) Antagonists.

G-protein-coupled receptor 84 (GPR84) is a proinflammatory orphan G-protein-coupled receptor implicated in several inflammatory and fibrotic diseases. Several agonist and antagonist ligands have been developed that target GPR84; however, a noncompetitive receptor blocker that was progressed to phase II clinical trials failed to demonstrate efficacy. New high-quality antagonists are required to investigate the pathophysiological role of GPR84 and to validate GPR84 as a therapeutic target. We previously reported the discovery of a novel triazine GPR84 competitive antagonist 1. Here, we describe an extensive structure-activity relationship (SAR) of antagonist 1 and also present in silico docking with supporting mutagenesis studies that reveals a potential binding pose for this type of orthosteric antagonist. Lead compound 42 is a potent GPR84 antagonist with a favorable pharmacokinetic (PK) profile suitable for further drug development.

Selective phosphorylation of threonine residues defines GPR84-arrestin interactions of biased ligands.

GPR84 is an immune cell-expressed, proinflammatory receptor currently being assessed as a therapeutic target in conditions including fibrosis and inflammatory bowel disease. Although it was previously shown that the orthosteric GPR84 activators 2-HTP and 6-OAU promoted its interactions with arrestin-3, a G protein-biased agonist DL-175 did not. Here, we show that replacement of all 21 serine and threonine residues within i-loop 3 of GPR84, but not the two serines in the C-terminal tail, eliminated the incorporation of [32P] and greatly reduced receptor-arrestin-3 interactions promoted by 2-HTP. GPR84 was phosphorylated constitutively on residues Ser221 and Ser224, while various other amino acids are phosphorylated in response to 2-HTP. Consistent with this, an antiserum able to identify pSer221/pSer224 recognized GPR84 from cells treated with and without activators, whereas an antiserum able to identify pThr263/pThr264 only recognized GPR84 after exposure to 2-HTP and not DL-175. Two distinct GPR84 antagonists as well as inhibition of G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2/3 prevented phosphorylation of pThr263/pThr264, but neither strategy affected constitutive phosphorylation of Ser221/Ser224. Furthermore, mutation of residues Thr263 and Thr264 to alanine generated a variant of GPR84 also limited in 2-HTP-induced interactions with arrestin-2 and -3. By contrast, this mutant was unaffected in its capacity to reduce cAMP levels. Taken together, these results define a key pair of threonine residues, regulated only by subsets of GPR84 small molecule activators and by GRK2/3 that define effective interactions with arrestins and provide novel tools to monitor the phosphorylation and functional status of GPR84.

Redox-dependent loss of flavin by mitochondria complex I is different in brain and heart.

Pathologies associated with tissue ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) in highly metabolizing organs such as the brain and heart are leading causes of death and disability in humans. Molecular mechanisms underlying mitochondrial dysfunction during acute injury in I/R are tissue-specific, but their details are not completely understood. A metabolic shift and accumulation of substrates of reverse electron transfer (RET) such as succinate are observed in tissue ischemia, making mitochondrial complex I of the respiratory chain (NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase) the most vulnerable enzyme to the following reperfusion. It has been shown that brain complex I is predisposed to losing its flavin mononucleotide (FMN) cofactor when maintained in the reduced state in conditions of RET both in vitro and in vivo. Here we investigated the process of redox-dependent dissociation of FMN from mitochondrial complex I in brain and heart mitochondria. In contrast to the brain enzyme, cardiac complex I does not lose FMN when reduced in RET conditions. We proposed that the different kinetics of FMN loss during RET is due to the presence of brain-specific long 50 kDa isoform of the NDUFV3 subunit of complex I, which is absent in the heart where only the canonical 10 kDa short isoform is found. Our simulation studies suggest that the long NDUFV3 isoform can reach toward the FMN binding pocket and affect the nucleotide affinity to the apoenzyme. For the first time, we demonstrated a potential functional role of tissue-specific isoforms of complex I, providing the distinct molecular mechanism of I/R-induced mitochondrial impairment in cardiac and cerebral tissues. By combining functional studies of intact complex I and molecular structure simulations, we defined the critical difference between the brain and heart enzyme and suggested insights into the redox-dependent inactivation mechanisms of complex I during I/R injury in both tissues.

Probe Confined Dynamic Mapping for G Protein-Coupled Receptor Allosteric Site Prediction.

Targeting G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) through allosteric sites offers advantages over orthosteric sites in identifying drugs with increased selectivity and potentially reduced side effects. In this study, we developed a probe confined dynamic mapping protocol that allows the prediction of allosteric sites at both the GPCR extracellular and intracellular sides, as well as at the receptor-lipid interface. The applied harmonic wall potential enhanced sampling of probe molecules in a selected area of a GPCR while preventing membrane distortion in molecular dynamics simulations. The specific probes derived from GPCR allosteric ligand structures performed better in allosteric site mapping compared to commonly used cosolvents. The M2 muscarinic, ß2 adrenergic, and P2Y1 purinergic receptors were selected for the protocol's retrospective validation. The protocol was next validated prospectively to locate the binding site of [5-fluoro-4-(hydroxymethyl)-2-methoxyphenyl]-(4-fluoro-1H-indol-1-yl)methanone at the D2 dopamine receptor, and subsequent mutagenesis confirmed the prediction. The protocol provides fast and efficient prediction of key amino acid residues surrounding allosteric sites in membrane proteins and facilitates the structure-based design of allosteric modulators.

Discovery and Characterization of Novel Antagonists of the Proinflammatory Orphan Receptor GPR84.

GPR84 is a poorly characterized, nominally orphan, proinflammatory G protein-coupled receptor that can be activated by medium chain length fatty acids. It is attracting considerable interest as a potential therapeutic target for antagonist ligands in both inflammatory bowel diseases and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Successful screening of more than 300 000 compounds from a small molecule library followed by detailed analysis of some 50 drug-like hits identified 3-((5,6-bis(4-methoxyphenyl)-1,2,4-triazin-3-yl)methyl)-1H-indole as a high affinity and highly selective competitive antagonist of human GPR84. Tritiation of a di-iodinated form of the core structure produced [3H]3-((5,6-diphenyl-1,2,4-triazin-3-yl)methyl)-1H-indole, which allowed effective measurement of receptor levels in both transfected cell lines and lipopolysaccharide-treated THP-1 monocyte/macrophage cells. Although this compound series lacks significant affinity at mouse GPR84, homology modeling and molecular dynamics simulations provided a potential rationale for this difference, and alteration of two residues in mouse GPR84 to the equivalent amino acids in the human orthologue, predicted to open the antagonist binding pocket, validated this model. Sequence alignment of other species orthologues further predicted binding of the compounds as high affinity antagonists at macaque, pig, and dog GPR84 but not at the rat orthologue, and pharmacological experiments confirmed these predictions. These studies provide a new class of GPR84 antagonists that display species selectivity defined via receptor modeling and mutagenesis.

Structural basis of the membrane intramolecular transacylase reaction responsible for lyso-form lipoprotein synthesis.

Lipoproteins serve diverse functions in the bacterial cell and some are essential for survival. Some lipoproteins are adjuvants eliciting responses from the innate immune system of the host. The growing list of membrane enzymes responsible for lipoprotein synthesis includes the recently discovered lipoprotein intramolecular transacylase, Lit. Lit creates a lipoprotein that is less immunogenic, possibly enabling the bacteria to gain a foothold in the host by stealth. Here, we report the crystal structure of the Lit enzyme from Bacillus cereus and describe its mechanism of action. Lit consists of four transmembrane helices with an extracellular cap. Conserved residues map to the cap-membrane interface. They include two catalytic histidines that function to effect unimolecular transacylation. The reaction involves acyl transfer from the sn-2 position of the glyceryl moiety to the amino group on the N-terminal cysteine of the substrate via an 8-membered ring intermediate. Transacylation takes place in a confined aromatic residue-rich environment that likely evolved to bring distant moieties on the substrate into proximity and proper orientation for catalysis.

Regulation of the Fasciola hepatica newly excysted juvenile cathepsin L3 (FhCL3) by its propeptide: a proposed 'clamp-like' mechanism of binding and inhibition.

BACKGROUND: The zoonotic worm parasite Fasciola hepatica secretes an abundance of cathepsin L peptidases that are associated with virulence, invasiveness, feeding and migration. The peptidases are produced as inactive zymogens that activate at low pH by autocatalytic removal of their N-terminal pro-domain or propeptide. Propeptides bind to their cognate enzyme with high specificity. Little is known, however, about the mechanism by which the propeptide of FhCL3, a cathepsin L peptidase secreted by the infective newly excysted juveniles (NEJs), regulates the inhibition and activation of the mature enzyme before it is secreted into host tissues. RESULTS: Immunolocalisation/immunoblotting studies show that the FhCL3 zymogen is produced and secreted by gastrodermal cells of the NEJs gut. A recombinant propeptide of FhCL3 (ppFhCL3) was shown to be a highly potent and selective inhibitor of native and recombinant F. hepatica FhCL3 peptidase, and other members of the cathepsin L family; inhibition constant (Ki) values obtained for FhCL1, FhCL2 and FhCL3 were 0.04 nM, 0.004 nM and < 0.002 nM, respectively. These values are at least 1000-fold lower than those Ki obtained for human cathepsin L (HsCL) and human cathepsin K (HsCK) demonstrating the selectivity of the ppFhCL3 for parasite cathepsins L. By exploiting 3-D structural data we identified key molecular interactions in the specific binding between the ppFhCL3 and FhCL3 mature domain. Using recombinant variants of ppFhCL3 we demonstrated the critical importance of a pair of propeptide residues (Tyr46Lys47) for the interaction with the propeptide binding loop (PBL) of the mature enzyme and other residues (Leu66 and Glu68) that allow the propeptide to block the active site. CONCLUSIONS: The FhCL3 peptidase involved in host invasion by F. hepatica is produced as a zymogen in the NEJs gut. Regulation of its activation involves specific binding sites within the propeptide that are interdependent and act as a "clamp-like" mechanism of inhibition. These interactions are disrupted by the low pH of the NEJs gut to initiate autocatalytic activation. Our enzyme kinetics data demonstrates high potency and selectivity of the ppFhCL3 for its cognate FhCL3 enzyme, information that could be utilised to design inhibitors of parasite cathepsin L peptidases.

An atypical and functionally diverse family of Kunitz-type cysteine/serine proteinase inhibitors secreted by the helminth parasite Fasciola hepatica.

Fasciola hepatica is a global parasite of humans and their livestock. Regulation of parasite-secreted cathepsin L-like cysteine proteases associated with virulence is important to fine-tune parasite-host interaction. We uncovered a family of seven Kunitz-type (FhKT) inhibitors dispersed into five phylogenetic groups. The most highly expressed FhKT genes (group FhKT1) are secreted by the newly excysted juveniles (NEJs), the stage responsible for host infection. The FhKT1 inhibitors do not inhibit serine proteases but are potent inhibitors of parasite cathepsins L and host lysosomal cathepsin L, S and K cysteine proteases (inhibition constants < 10 nM). Their unusual inhibitory properties are due to (a) Leu15 in the reactive site loop P1 position that sits at the water-exposed interface of the S1 and S1' subsites of the cathepsin protease, and (b) Arg19 which forms cation-π interactions with Trp291 of the S1' subsite and electrostatic interactions with Asp125 of the S2' subsite. FhKT1.3 is exceptional, however, as it also inhibits the serine protease trypsin due to replacement of the P1 Leu15 in the reactive loop with Arg15. The atypical Kunitz-type inhibitor family likely regulate parasite cathepsin L proteases and/or impairs host immune cell activation by blocking lysosomal cathepsin proteases involved in antigen processing and presentation.

Fasciola hepatica serine protease inhibitor family (serpins): Purposely crafted for regulating host proteases.

Serine protease inhibitors (serpins) regulate proteolytic events within diverse biological processes, including digestion, coagulation, inflammation and immune responses. The presence of serpins in Fasciola hepatica excretory-secretory products indicates that the parasite exploits these to regulate proteases encountered during its development within vertebrate hosts. Interrogation of the F. hepatica genome identified a multi-gene serpin family of seven members that has expanded by gene duplication and divergence to create an array of inhibitors with distinct specificities. We investigated the molecular properties and functions of two representatives, FhSrp1 and FhSrp2, highly expressed in the invasive newly excysted juvenile (NEJ). Consistent with marked differences in the reactive centre loop (RCL) that executes inhibitor-protease complexing, the two recombinant F. hepatica serpins displayed distinct inhibitory profiles against an array of mammalian serine proteases. In particular, rFhSrp1 efficiently inhibited kallikrein (Ki = 40 nM) whilst rFhSrp2 was a highly potent inhibitor of chymotrypsin (Ki = 0.07 nM). FhSrp1 and FhSrp2 are both expressed on the NEJ surface, predominantly around the oral and ventral suckers, suggesting that these inhibitors protect the parasites from the harmful proteolytic effects of host proteases, such as chymotrypsin, during invasion. Furthermore, the unusual inhibition of kallikrein suggests that rFhSrp1 modulates host responses such as inflammation and vascular permeability by interfering with the kallikrein-kinin system. A vaccine combination of rFhSrp1 and rFhSrp2 formulated in the adjuvant Montanide ISA 206VG elicited modest but non-significant protection against a challenge infection in a rat model, but did induce some protection against liver pathogenesis when compared to a control group and a group vaccinated with two well-studied vaccine candidates, F. hepatica cathepsin L2 and L3. This work highlights the importance of F. hepatica serpins to regulate host responses that enables parasite survival during infection and, coupled with the vaccine data, encourages future vaccine trials in ruminants.

LINGO1 is a regulatory subunit of large conductance, Ca2+-activated potassium channels.

LINGO1 is a transmembrane protein that is up-regulated in the cerebellum of patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) and Essential Tremor (ET). Patients with additional copies of the LINGO1 gene also present with tremor. Pharmacological or genetic ablation of large conductance Ca2+-activated K+ (BK) channels also result in tremor and motor disorders. We hypothesized that LINGO1 is a regulatory BK channel subunit. We show that 1) LINGO1 coimmunoprecipitated with BK channels in human brain, 2) coexpression of LINGO1 and BK channels resulted in rapidly inactivating BK currents, and 3) LINGO1 reduced the membrane surface expression of BK channels. These results suggest that LINGO1 is a regulator of BK channels, which causes a "functional knockdown" of these currents and may contribute to the tremor associated with increased LINGO1 levels.

GIP receptor: Expression in neuroendocrine tumours, internalization, signalling from endosomes and structure-function relationship studies.

GIP is well known as a peptide regulating metabolic functions. In this review paper, we summarize a series of data on GIP receptor (GIPR). First, expression study of GIPR in human neuroendocrine tumours showed a very high incidence (nearly 100%) and a high density in both functional and non functional pancreatic tumours, ileal tumours, bronchial tumours and medullary thyroid carcinomas. Then, data on internalization of GIPR following stimulation by GIP are reported. Rapid and abundant internalization of GIPR also found in tumor pancreatic endocrine cells opens the possibility of tumor imaging and eradication using radiolabeled GIP. Interestingly, internalized GIPR continues to signal in early endosomes stimulating production of cAMP and activation of PKA, thus, supporting the view that GIPR signals from both plasma membrane and vesicles of internalization. At last, we summarize data from studies using in synergy molecular modeling and site-directed mutagenesis, which identified crucial amino acids of transmembrane domains of GIPR involved in GIPR binding site of GIP and/or in its activation and coupling to Gs protein. All together, these last molecular data may help to better understand structure-activity relationship data on GIP and GIPR.