Phasic/tonic glial GABA differentially transduce for olfactory adaptation and neuronal aging.

Phasic (fast) and tonic (sustained) inhibition of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are fundamental for regulating day-to-day activities, neuronal excitability, and plasticity. However, the mechanisms and physiological functions of glial GABA transductions remain poorly understood. Here, we report that the AMsh glia in Caenorhabditis elegans exhibit both phasic and tonic GABAergic signaling, which distinctively regulate olfactory adaptation and neuronal aging. Through genetic screening, we find that GABA permeates through bestrophin-9/-13/-14 anion channels from AMsh glia, which primarily activate the metabolic GABAB receptor GBB-1 in the neighboring ASH sensory neurons. This tonic action of glial GABA regulates the age-associated changes of ASH neurons and olfactory responses via a conserved signaling pathway, inducing neuroprotection. In addition, the calcium-evoked, vesicular glial GABA release acts upon the ionotropic GABAA receptor LGC-38 in ASH neurons to regulate olfactory adaptation. These findings underscore the fundamental significance of glial GABA in maintaining healthy aging and neuronal stability.

Targeting the intracellular neurexin interactome by in vivo proximity ligation.

In a recent study, Profes, Tiroumalechetty, and colleagues used the in vivo proximity ligation technique TurboID to scrupulously characterize the interactome of the intracellular domain (ICD) of neurexin, revealing that this domain may be involved in presynaptic actin assembly by interacting with actin-associated proteins.

CaMKII mediates sexually dimorphic synaptic transmission at neuromuscular junctions in C. elegans.

Sexually dimorphic behaviors are ubiquitous throughout the animal kingdom. Although both sex-specific and sex-shared neurons have been functionally implicated in these diverse behaviors, less is known about the roles of sex-shared neurons. Here, we discovered sexually dimorphic cholinergic synaptic transmission in C. elegans occurring at neuromuscular junctions (NMJs), with males exhibiting increased release frequencies, which result in sexually dimorphic locomotion behaviors. Scanning electron microscopy revealed that males have significantly more synaptic vesicles (SVs) at their cholinergic synapses than hermaphrodites. Analysis of previously published transcriptome identified the male-enriched transcripts and focused our attention on UNC-43/CaMKII. We ultimately show that differential accumulation of UNC-43 at cholinergic neurons controls axonal SV abundance and synaptic transmission. Finally, we demonstrate that sex reversal of all neurons in hermaphrodites generates male-like cholinergic transmission and locomotion behaviors. Thus, beyond demonstrating UNC-43/CaMKII as an essential mediator of sex-specific synaptic transmission, our study provides molecular and cellular insights into how sex-shared neurons can generate sexually dimorphic locomotion behaviors.

Early pheromone perception remodels neurodevelopment and accelerates neurodegeneration in adult C. elegans.

Age-associated neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases are mainly caused by protein aggregation. The etiologies of these neurodegenerative diseases share a chemical environment. However, how chemical cues modulate neurodegeneration remains unclear. Here, we found that in Caenorhabditis elegans, exposure to pheromones in the L1 stage accelerates neurodegeneration in adults. Perception of pheromones ascr#3 and ascr#10 is mediated by chemosensory neurons ASK and ASI. ascr#3 perceived by G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) DAF-38 in ASK activates glutamatergic transmission into AIA interneurons. ascr#10 perceived by GPCR STR-2 in ASI activates the secretion of neuropeptide NLP-1, which binds to the NPR-11 receptor in AIA. Activation of both ASI and ASK is required and sufficient to remodel neurodevelopment via AIA, which triggers insulin-like signaling and inhibits autophagy in adult neurons non-cell-autonomously. Our work reveals how pheromone perception at the early developmental stage modulates neurodegeneration in adults and provides insights into how the external environment impacts neurodegenerative diseases.

UNC-43/CaMKII-triggered anterograde signals recruit GABAARs to mediate inhibitory synaptic transmission and plasticity at C. elegans NMJs.

Disturbed inhibitory synaptic transmission has functional impacts on neurodevelopmental and psychiatric disorders. An essential mechanism for modulating inhibitory synaptic transmission is alteration of the postsynaptic abundance of GABAARs, which are stabilized by postsynaptic scaffold proteins and recruited by presynaptic signals. However, how GABAergic neurons trigger signals to transsynaptically recruit GABAARs remains elusive. Here, we show that UNC-43/CaMKII functions at GABAergic neurons to recruit GABAARs and modulate inhibitory synaptic transmission at C. elegans neuromuscular junctions. We demonstrate that UNC-43 promotes presynaptic MADD-4B/Punctin secretion and NRX-1α/Neurexin surface delivery. Together, MADD-4B and NRX-1α recruit postsynaptic NLG-1/Neuroligin and stabilize GABAARs. Further, the excitation of GABAergic neurons potentiates the recruitment of NLG-1-stabilized-GABAARs, which depends on UNC-43, MADD-4B, and NRX-1. These data all support that UNC-43 triggers MADD-4B and NRX-1α, which act as anterograde signals to recruit postsynaptic GABAARs. Thus, our findings elucidate a mechanism for pre- and postsynaptic communication and inhibitory synaptic transmission and plasticity.

A WDR47 homolog facilitates ciliogenesis by modulating intraflagellar transport.

Cilia are conserved organelles found in many cell types in eukaryotes, and their dysfunction causes defects in environmental sensing and signaling transduction; such defects are termed ciliopathies. Distinct cilia have cell-specific morphologies and exert distinct functions. However, the underlying mechanisms of cell-specific ciliogenesis and regulation are unclear. Here, we identified a WD40-repeat (WDR) protein, NMTN-1 (the homolog of mammalian WDR47), and show that it is specifically required for ciliogenesis of AWB chemosensory neurons in C. elegans. NMTN-1 is expressed in the AWB chemosensory neuron pair, and is enriched at the basal body (BB) of the AWB cilia. Knockout of nmtn-1 causes abnormal AWB neuron cilia morphology, structural integrity, and induces aberrant AWB-mediated aversive behaviors. We further demonstrate that nmtn-1 deletion affects movement of intraflagellar transport (IFT) particles and their cargo delivery in AWB neurons. Our results indicate that NMTN-1 is essential for AWB neuron ciliary morphology and function, which reveal a novel mechanism for cell-specific ciliogenesis. Given that WDR47/NMTN-1 is conserved in mammals, our findings may help understanding of the process of cell-specific ciliogenesis and provide insights for treating ciliopathies.

CASK and FARP localize two classes of post-synaptic ACh receptors thereby promoting cholinergic transmission.

Changes in neurotransmitter receptor abundance at post-synaptic elements play a pivotal role in regulating synaptic strength. For this reason, there is significant interest in identifying and characterizing the scaffolds required for receptor localization at different synapses. Here we analyze the role of two C. elegans post-synaptic scaffolding proteins (LIN-2/CASK and FRM-3/FARP) at cholinergic neuromuscular junctions. Constitutive knockouts or muscle specific inactivation of lin-2 and frm-3 dramatically reduced spontaneous and evoked post-synaptic currents. These synaptic defects resulted from the decreased abundance of two classes of post-synaptic ionotropic acetylcholine receptors (ACR-16/CHRNA7 and levamisole-activated AChRs). LIN-2's AChR scaffolding function is mediated by its SH3 and PDZ domains, which interact with AChRs and FRM-3/FARP, respectively. Thus, our findings show that post-synaptic LIN-2/FRM-3 complexes promote cholinergic synaptic transmission by recruiting AChRs to post-synaptic elements.

Male pheromones modulate synaptic transmission at the C. elegans neuromuscular junction in a sexually dimorphic manner.

The development of functional synapses in the nervous system is important for animal physiology and behaviors, and its disturbance has been linked with many neurodevelopmental disorders. The synaptic transmission efficacy can be modulated by the environment to accommodate external changes, which is crucial for animal reproduction and survival. However, the underlying plasticity of synaptic transmission remains poorly understood. Here we show that in Caenorhabditis elegans, the male environment increases the hermaphrodite cholinergic transmission at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ), which alters hermaphrodites' locomotion velocity and mating efficiency. We identify that the male-specific pheromones mediate this synaptic transmission modulation effect in a developmental stage-dependent manner. Dissection of the sensory circuits reveals that the AWB chemosensory neurons sense those male pheromones and further transduce the information to NMJ using cGMP signaling. Exposure of hermaphrodites to the male pheromones specifically increases the accumulation of presynaptic CaV2 calcium channels and clustering of postsynaptic acetylcholine receptors at cholinergic synapses of NMJ, which potentiates cholinergic synaptic transmission. Thus, our study demonstrates a circuit mechanism for synaptic modulation and behavioral flexibility by sexual dimorphic pheromones.

Retrograde Synaptic Inhibition Is Mediated by α-Neurexin Binding to the α2δ Subunits of N-Type Calcium Channels.

The synaptic adhesion molecules Neurexin and Neuroligin alter the development and function of synapses and are linked to autism in humans. In C. elegans, post-synaptic Neurexin (NRX-1) and pre-synaptic Neuroligin (NLG-1) mediate a retrograde synaptic signal that inhibits acetylcholine (ACh) release at neuromuscular junctions. Here, we show that the retrograde signal decreases ACh release by inhibiting the function of pre-synaptic UNC-2/CaV2 calcium channels. Post-synaptic NRX-1 binds to an auxiliary subunit of pre-synaptic UNC-2/CaV2 channels (UNC-36/α2δ), decreasing UNC-36 abundance at pre-synaptic elements. Retrograde inhibition is mediated by a soluble form of NRX-1's ectodomain, which is released from the post-synaptic membrane by the SUP-17/ADAM10 protease. Mammalian Neurexin-1α binds α2δ-3 and decreases CaV2.2 current in transfected cells, whereas Neurexin-1α has no effect on CaV2.2 reconstituted with α2δ-1 and α2δ-2. Collectively, these results suggest that α-Neurexin binding to α2δ is a conserved mechanism for regulating synaptic transmission.

Molecular dynamics of de novo telomere heterochromatin formation in budding yeast.

In the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, heterochromatin structure is found at three chromosome regions, which are homothallic mating-type loci, rDNA regions and telomeres. To address how telomere heterochromatin is assembled under physiological conditions, we employed a de novo telomere addition system, and analyzed the dynamic chromatin changes of the TRP1 reporter gene during telomere elongation. We found that integrating a 255-bp, but not an 81-bp telomeric sequence near the TRP1 promoter could trigger Sir2 recruitment, active chromatin mark(s)' removal, chromatin compaction and TRP1 gene silencing, indicating that the length of the telomeric sequence inserted in the internal region of a chromosome is critical for determining the chromatin state at the proximal region. Interestingly, Rif1 but not Rif2 or yKu is indispensable for the formation of intra-chromosomal silent chromatin initiated by telomeric sequence. When an internal short telomeric sequence (e.g., 81 bp) gets exposed to become a de novo telomere, the herterochromatin features, such as Sir recruitment, active chromatin mark(s)' removal and chromatin compaction, are detected within a few hours before the de novo telomere reaches a stable length. Our results recapitulate the molecular dynamics and reveal a coherent picture of telomere heterochromatin formation.

A network of autism linked genes stabilizes two pools of synaptic GABA(A) receptors.

Changing receptor abundance at synapses is an important mechanism for regulating synaptic strength. Synapses contain two pools of receptors, immobilized and diffusing receptors, both of which are confined to post-synaptic elements. Here we show that immobile and diffusing GABA(A) receptors are stabilized by distinct synaptic scaffolds at C. elegans neuromuscular junctions. Immobilized GABA(A) receptors are stabilized by binding to FRM-3/EPB4.1 and LIN-2A/CASK. Diffusing GABA(A) receptors are stabilized by the synaptic adhesion molecules Neurexin and Neuroligin. Inhibitory post-synaptic currents are eliminated in double mutants lacking both scaffolds. Neurexin, Neuroligin, and CASK mutations are all linked to Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). Our results suggest that these mutations may directly alter inhibitory transmission, which could contribute to the developmental and cognitive deficits observed in ASD.

UNC-13L, UNC-13S, and Tomosyn form a protein code for fast and slow neurotransmitter release in Caenorhabditis elegans.

Synaptic transmission consists of fast and slow components of neurotransmitter release. Here we show that these components are mediated by distinct exocytic proteins. The Caenorhabditis elegans unc-13 gene is required for SV exocytosis, and encodes long and short isoforms (UNC-13L and S). Fast release was mediated by UNC-13L, whereas slow release required both UNC-13 proteins and was inhibited by Tomosyn. The spatial location of each protein correlated with its effect. Proteins adjacent to the dense projection mediated fast release, while those controlling slow release were more distal or diffuse. Two UNC-13L domains accelerated release. C2A, which binds RIM (a protein associated with calcium channels), anchored UNC-13 at active zones and shortened the latency of release. A calmodulin binding site accelerated release but had little effect on UNC-13's spatial localization. These results suggest that UNC-13L, UNC-13S, and Tomosyn form a molecular code that dictates the timing of neurotransmitter release. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.00967.001.

Telomerase-null survivor screening identifies novel telomere recombination regulators.

Telomeres are protein-DNA structures found at the ends of linear chromosomes and are crucial for genome integrity. Telomeric DNA length is primarily maintained by the enzyme telomerase. Cells lacking telomerase will undergo senescence when telomeres become critically short. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a very small percentage of cells lacking telomerase can remain viable by lengthening telomeres via two distinct homologous recombination pathways. These "survivor" cells are classified as either Type I or Type II, with each class of survivor possessing distinct telomeric DNA structures and genetic requirements. To elucidate the regulatory pathways contributing to survivor generation, we knocked out the telomerase RNA gene TLC1 in 280 telomere-length-maintenance (TLM) gene mutants and examined telomere structures in post-senescent survivors. We uncovered new functional roles for 10 genes that affect the emerging ratio of Type I versus Type II survivors and 22 genes that are required for Type II survivor generation. We further verified that Pif1 helicase was required for Type I recombination and that the INO80 chromatin remodeling complex greatly affected the emerging frequency of Type I survivors. Finally, we found the Rad6-mediated ubiquitination pathway and the KEOPS complex were required for Type II recombination. Our data provide an independent line of evidence supporting the idea that these genes play important roles in telomere dynamics.

Characterization of the intramolecular G-quadruplex promoting activity of Est1.

In the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, telomeric DNA includes TG1-3/C1-3A double-stranded DNA and a protruding G-rich overhang. Our previous studies revealed that the telomerase regulatory subunit Est1 promotes telomeric single-stranded DNA to form intermolecular G-quadruplex in vitro, and this activity is required for telomere replication and protection in vivo. In this study, we further characterized the G-quadruplex promoting activity of Est1. Here we report that Est1 is able to promote the single-stranded oligonucleotide of (TGTGTGGG)4, which mimics the natural telomeric DNA, to form intramolecular G-quadruplex. Therefore, it remains possible that the intramolecular G-quadruplex promoting activity of Est1 is biologically relevant in telomere replication in vivo.

Neurexin and neuroligin mediate retrograde synaptic inhibition in C. elegans.

The synaptic adhesion molecules neurexin and neuroligin alter the development and function of synapses and are linked to autism in humans. Here, we found that Caenorhabditis elegans neurexin (NRX-1) and neuroligin (NLG-1) mediated a retrograde synaptic signal that inhibited neurotransmitter release at neuromuscular junctions. Retrograde signaling was induced in mutants lacking a muscle microRNA (miR-1) and was blocked in mutants lacking NLG-1 or NRX-1. Release was rapid and abbreviated when the retrograde signal was on, whereas release was slow and prolonged when retrograde signaling was blocked. The retrograde signal adjusted release kinetics by inhibiting exocytosis of synaptic vesicles (SVs) that are distal to the site of calcium entry. Inhibition of release was mediated by increased presynaptic levels of tomosyn, an inhibitor of SV fusion.

Est1 protects telomeres and inhibits subtelomeric y'-element recombination.

In the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the structure and function of telomeres are maintained by binding proteins, such as Cdc13-Stn1-Ten1 (CST), Yku, and the telomerase complex. Like CST and Yku, telomerase also plays a role in telomere protection or capping. Unlike CST and Yku, however, the underlying molecular mechanism of telomerase-mediated telomere protection remains unclear. In this study, we employed both the CDC13-EST1 fusion gene and the separation-of-function allele est1-D514A to elucidate that Est1 provided a telomere protection pathway that was independent of both the CST and Yku pathways. Est1's ability to convert single-stranded telomeric DNA into a G quadruplex was required for telomerase-mediated telomere protection function. Additionally, Est1 maintained the integrity of telomeres by suppressing the recombination of subtelomeric Y' elements. Our results demonstrate that one major functional role that Est1 brings to the telomerase complex is the capping or protection of telomeres.

Crystal structure of the catalytic core of Saccharomyces cerevesiae histone demethylase Rph1: insights into the substrate specificity and catalytic mechanism.

Saccharomyces cerevesiae Rph1 is a histone demethylase orthologous to human JMJD2A (Jumonji-domain-containing protein 2A) that can specifically demethylate tri- and di-methylated Lys³6 of histone H3. c-Rph1, the catalytic core of Rph1, is responsible for the demethylase activity, which is essential for the transcription elongation of some actively transcribed genes. In the present work, we report the crystal structures of c-Rph1 in apo form and in complex with Ni²(+) and α-KG [2-oxoglutarate (α-ketoglutarate)]. The structure of c-Rph1 is composed of a JmjN (Jumonji N) domain, a long ß-hairpin, a mixed structural motif and a JmjC domain. The α-KG cofactor forms hydrogen-bonding interactions with the side chains of conserved residues, and the Ni²(+) ion at the active site is chelated by conserved residues and the cofactor. Structural comparison of Rph1 with JMJD2A indicates that the substrate-binding cleft of Rph1 is formed with several structural elements of the JmjC domain, the long ß-hairpin and the mixed structural motif; and the methylated Lys³6 of H3 is recognized by several conserved residues of the JmjC domain. In vitro biochemical results show that mutations of the key residues at the catalytic centre and in the substrate-binding cleft abolish the demethylase activity. In vivo growth phenotype analyses also demonstrate that these residues are essential for its functional roles in transcription elongation. Taken together, our structural and biological data provide insights into the molecular basis of the histone demethylase activity and the substrate specificity of Rph1.

Yeast telomerase subunit Est1p has guanine quadruplex-promoting activity that is required for telomere elongation.

Telomeres are eukaryotic protein-DNA complexes found at the ends of linear chromosomes that are essential for maintaining genome integrity and are implicated in cellular aging and cancer. The guanine (G)-rich strand of telomeric DNA, usually elongated by the telomerase reverse transcriptase, can form a higher-order structure known as a G-quadruplex in vitro and in vivo. Several factors that promote or resolve G-quadruplexes have been identified, but the functional importance of these structures for telomere maintenance is not well understood. Here we show that the yeast telomerase subunit Est1p, known to be involved in telomerase recruitment to telomeres, can convert single-stranded telomeric G-rich DNA into a G-quadruplex structure in vitro in a Mg(2+)-dependent manner. Cells carrying Est1p mutants deficient in G-quadruplex formation in vitro showed gradual telomere shortening and cellular senescence, indicating a positive regulatory role for G-quadruplex in the maintenance of telomere length.

Sua5p a single-stranded telomeric DNA-binding protein facilitates telomere replication.

In budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, telomere length maintenance involves a complicated network as more than 280 telomere maintenance genes have been identified in the nonessential gene deletion mutant set. As a supplement, we identified additional 29 telomere maintenance genes, which were previously taken as essential genes. In this study, we report a novel function of Sua5p in telomere replication. Epistasis analysis and telomere sequencing show that sua5Delta cells display progressively shortened telomeres at early passages, and Sua5 functions downstream telomerase recruitment. Further, biochemical, structural and genetic studies show that Sua5p specifically binds single-stranded telomeric (ssTG) DNA in vitro through a distinct DNA-binding region on its surface, and the DNA-binding ability is essential for its telomere function. Thus, Sua5p represents a novel ssTG DNA-binding protein and positively regulates the telomere length in vivo.