Treatment with IFB-088 Improves Neuropathy in CMT1A and CMT1B Mice.

Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 1A (CMT1A), caused by duplication of the peripheral myelin protein 22 (PMP22) gene, and CMT1B, caused by mutations in myelin protein zero (MPZ) gene, are the two most common forms of demyelinating CMT (CMT1), and no treatments are available for either. Prior studies of the MpzSer63del mouse model of CMT1B have demonstrated that protein misfolding, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) retention and activation of the unfolded protein response (UPR) contributed to the neuropathy. Heterozygous patients with an arginine to cysteine mutation in MPZ (MPZR98C) develop a severe infantile form of CMT1B which is modelled by MpzR98C/ + mice that also show ER stress and an activated UPR. C3-PMP22 mice are considered to effectively model CMT1A. Altered proteostasis, ER stress and activation of the UPR have been demonstrated in mice carrying Pmp22 mutations. To determine whether enabling the ER stress/UPR and readjusting protein homeostasis would effectively treat these models of CMT1B and CMT1A, we administered Sephin1/IFB-088/icerguestat, a UPR modulator which showed efficacy in the MpzS63del model of CMT1B, to heterozygous MpzR98C and C3-PMP22 mice. Mice were analysed by behavioural, neurophysiological, morphological and biochemical measures. Both MpzR98C/ + and C3-PMP22 mice improved in motor function and neurophysiology. Myelination, as demonstrated by g-ratios and myelin thickness, improved in CMT1B and CMT1A mice and markers of UPR activation returned towards wild-type values. Taken together, our results demonstrate the capability of IFB-088 to treat a second mouse model of CMT1B and a mouse model of CMT1A, the most common form of CMT. Given the recent benefits of IFB-088 treatment in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and multiple sclerosis animal models, these data demonstrate its potential in managing UPR and ER stress for multiple mutations in CMT1 as well as in other neurodegenerative diseases. (Left panel) the accumulation of overexpressed PMP22 or misfolded mutant P0 in the Schwann cell endoplasmic reticulum (ER) leads to overwhelming of the degradative capacity, activation of ER-stress mechanisms, and myelination impairment. (Right panel) by prolonging eIF2α phosphorylation, IFB-088 reduces the amount of newly synthesized proteins entering the ER, allowing the protein quality control systems to better cope with the unfolded/misfolded protein and allowing myelination to progress.

ZRF1 is a novel S6 kinase substrate that drives the senescence programme.

The inactivation of S6 kinases mimics several aspects of caloric restriction, including small body size, increased insulin sensitivity and longevity. However, the impact of S6 kinase activity on cellular senescence remains to be established. Here, we show that the constitutive activation of mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) by tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) mutations induces a premature senescence programme in fibroblasts that relies on S6 kinases. To determine novel molecular targets linking S6 kinase activation to the control of senescence, we set up a chemical genetic screen, leading to the identification of the nuclear epigenetic factor ZRF1 (also known as DNAJC2, MIDA1, Mpp11). S6 kinases phosphorylate ZRF1 on Ser47 in cultured cells and in mammalian tissues in vivo Knock-down of ZRF1 or expression of a phosphorylation mutant is sufficient to blunt the S6 kinase-dependent senescence programme. This is traced by a sharp alteration in p16 levels, the cell cycle inhibitor and a master regulator of senescence. Our findings reveal a mechanism by which nutrient sensing pathways impact on cell senescence through the activation of mTORC1-S6 kinases and the phosphorylation of ZRF1.

Selective Tuberous Sclerosis Complex 1 Gene Deletion in Smooth Muscle Activates Mammalian Target of Rapamycin Signaling and Induces Pulmonary Hypertension.

Constitutive activation of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) complexes mTORC1 and mTORC2 is associated with pulmonary hypertension (PH) and sustained growth of pulmonary artery (PA) smooth muscle cells (SMCs). We investigated whether selective mTORC1 activation in SMCs induced by deleting the negative mTORC1 regulator tuberous sclerosis complex 1 gene (TSC1) was sufficient to produce PH in mice. Mice expressing Cre recombinase under SM22 promoter control were crossed with TSC1(LoxP/LoxP) mice to generate SM22-TSC1(-/-) mice. At 8 weeks of age, SM22-TSC1(-/-) mice exhibited PH with marked increases in distal PA muscularization and Ki67-positive PASMC counts, without systemic hypertension or cardiac dysfunction. Marked activation of the mTORC1 substrates S6 kinase and 4E-BP and the mTORC2 substrates p-Akt(Ser473) and glycogen synthase kinase 3 was found in the lungs and pulmonary vessels of SM22-TSC1(-/-) mice when compared with control mice. Treatment with 5 mg/kg rapamycin for 3 weeks to inhibit mTORC1 and mTORC2 fully reversed PH in SM22-TSC1(-/-) mice. In chronically hypoxic mice and SM22-5HTT(+) mice exhibiting PH associated with mTORC1 and mTORC2 activation, PH was maximally attenuated by low-dose rapamycin associated with selective mTORC1 inhibition. Cultured PASMCs from SM22-TSC1(-/-), SM22-5HTT(+), and chronically hypoxic mice exhibited similar sustained growth-rate enhancement and constitutive mTORC1 and mTORC2 activation; both effects were abolished by rapamycin. Deletion of the downstream mTORC1 effectors S6 kinase 1/2 in mice also activated mTOR signaling and induced PH. We concluded that activation of mTORC1 signaling leads to increased PASMC proliferation and subsequent PH development.

Depdc5 knockout rat: A novel model of mTORopathy.

DEP-domain containing 5 (DEPDC5), encoding a repressor of the mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) signaling pathway, has recently emerged as a major gene mutated in familial focal epilepsies and focal cortical dysplasia. Here we established a global knockout rat using TALEN technology to investigate in vivo the impact of Depdc5-deficiency. Homozygous Depdc5(-/-) embryos died from embryonic day 14.5 due to a global growth delay. Constitutive mTORC1 hyperactivation was evidenced in the brains and in cultured fibroblasts of Depdc5(-/-) embryos, as reflected by enhanced phosphorylation of its downstream effectors S6K1 and rpS6. Consistently, prenatal treatment with mTORC1 inhibitor rapamycin rescued the phenotype of Depdc5(-/-) embryos. Heterozygous Depdc5(+/-) rats developed normally and exhibited no spontaneous electroclinical seizures, but had altered cortical neuron excitability and firing patterns. Depdc5(+/-) rats displayed cortical cytomegalic dysmorphic neurons and balloon-like cells strongly expressing phosphorylated rpS6, indicative of mTORC1 upregulation, and not observed after prenatal rapamycin treatment. These neuropathological abnormalities are reminiscent of the hallmark brain pathology of human focal cortical dysplasia. Altogether, Depdc5 knockout rats exhibit multiple features of rodent models of mTORopathies, and thus, stand as a relevant model to study their underlying pathogenic mechanisms.

Application of the [γ-32P] ATP kinase assay to study anabolic signaling in human skeletal muscle.

AMPK (AMP-dependant protein kinase)-mTORC1 (mechanistic target of rapamycin in complex 1)-p70S6K1 (ribosomal protein S6 kinase 1 of 70 kDa) signaling plays a crucial role in muscle protein synthesis (MPS). Understanding this pathway has been advanced by the application of the Western blot (WB) technique. However, because many components of the mTORC1 pathway undergo numerous, multisite posttranslational modifications, solely studying the phosphorylation changes of mTORC1 and its substrates may not adequately represent the true metabolic signaling processes. The aim of this study was to develop and apply a quantitative in vitro [γ-(32)P] ATP kinase assay (KA) for p70S6K1 to assess kinase activity in human skeletal muscle to resistance exercise (RE) and protein feeding. In an initial series of experiments the assay was validated in tissue culture and in p70S6K1-knockout tissues. Following these experiments, the methodology was applied to assess p70S6K1 signaling responses to a physiologically relevant stimulus. Six men performed unilateral RE followed by the consumption of 20 g of protein. Muscle biopsies were obtained at pre-RE, and 1 and 3 h post-RE. In response to RE and protein consumption, p70S6K1 activity as assessed by the KA was significantly increased from pre-RE at 1 and 3 h post-RE. However, phosphorylated p70S6K1(thr389) was not significantly elevated. AMPK activity was suppressed from pre-RE at 3 h post-RE, whereas phosphorylated ACC(ser79) was unchanged. Total protein kinase B activity also was unchanged after RE from pre-RE levels. Of the other markers we assessed by WB, 4EBP1(thr37/46) phosphorylation was the only significant responder, being elevated at 3 h post-RE from pre-RE. These data highlight the utility of the KA to study skeletal muscle plasticity.

AKT2 is essential to maintain podocyte viability and function during chronic kidney disease.

In chronic kidney disease (CKD), loss of functional nephrons results in metabolic and mechanical stress in the remaining ones, resulting in further nephron loss. Here we show that Akt2 activation has an essential role in podocyte protection after nephron reduction. Glomerulosclerosis and albuminuria were substantially worsened in Akt2(-/-) but not in Akt1(-/-) mice as compared to wild-type mice. Specific deletion of Akt2 or its regulator Rictor in podocytes revealed that Akt2 has an intrinsic function in podocytes. Mechanistically, Akt2 triggers a compensatory program that involves mouse double minute 2 homolog (Mdm2), glycogen synthase kinase 3 (Gsk3) and Rac1. The defective activation of this pathway after nephron reduction leads to apoptosis and foot process effacement of the podocytes. We further show that AKT2 activation by mammalian target of rapamycin complex 2 (mTORC2) is also required for podocyte survival in human CKD. More notably, we elucidate the events underlying the adverse renal effect of sirolimus and provide a criterion for the rational use of this drug. Thus, our results disclose a new function of Akt2 and identify a potential therapeutic target for preserving glomerular function in CKD.

The combined deletion of S6K1 and Akt2 deteriorates glycemic control in a high-fat diet.

Signaling downstream of mechanistic target of rapamycin complexes 1 and 2 (mTORC1 and mTORC2) controls specific and distinct aspects of insulin action and nutrient homeostasis in an interconnected and as yet unclear way. Mice lacking the mTORC1 substrate S6 kinase 1 (S6K1) maintain proper glycemic control with a high-fat diet. This phenotype is accompanied by insulin hypersensitivity, Akt- and AMP-activated kinase upregulation, and increased lipolysis in adipose tissue and skeletal muscle. Here, we show that, when S6K1 inactivation is combined with the deletion of the mTORC2 substrate Akt2, glucose homeostasis is compromised due to defects in both insulin action and ß-cell function. After a high-fat diet, the S6K1(-/-) Akt2(-/-) double-mutant mice do not become obese, though they are severely hyperglycemic. Our data demonstrate that S6K1 is required for pancreatic ß-cell growth and function during adaptation to insulin resistance states. Strikingly, the inactivation of two targets of mTOR and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase signaling is sufficient to reproduce major hallmarks of type 2 diabetes.

A role for p38 stress-activated protein kinase in regulation of cell growth via TORC1.

The target of rapamycin (TOR) complex 1 (TORC1) signaling pathway is a critical regulator of translation and cell growth. To identify novel components of this pathway, we performed a kinome-wide RNA interference (RNAi) screen in Drosophila melanogaster S2 cells. RNAi targeting components of the p38 stress-activated kinase cascade prevented the cell size increase elicited by depletion of the TOR negative regulator TSC2. In mammalian and Drosophila tissue culture, as well as in Drosophila ovaries ex vivo, p38-activating stresses, such as H(2)O(2) and anisomycin, were able to activate TORC1. This stress-induced TORC1 activation could be blocked by RNAi against mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 3 and 6 (MKK3/6) or by the overexpression of dominant negative Rags. Interestingly, p38 was also required for the activation of TORC1 in response to amino acids and growth factors. Genetic ablation either of p38b or licorne, its upstream kinase, resulted in small flies consisting of small cells. Mutants with mutations in licorne or p38b are nutrition sensitive; low-nutrient food accentuates the small-organism phenotypes, as well as the partial lethality of the p38b null allele. These data suggest that p38 is an important positive regulator of TORC1 in both mammalian and Drosophila systems in response to certain stresses and growth factors.

AMPK activation inhibits the expression of HIF-1alpha induced by insulin and IGF-1.

Insulin, insulin like growth factor (IGF)-1, and AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) signaling regulate independently angiogenesis through vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression. In the present study, we investigated a potential cross-talk between these signaling pathways on hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1alpha and VEGF expression. Retinal epithelial ARPE-19 cells were treated with AICAR, an AMPK activator, alone or in combination with insulin and IGF-1. AICAR stimulated VEGF mRNA expression, but did not modify the insulin- and IGF-1-induced VEGF expression. We have investigated the effect of AICAR on insulin and IGF-1 signaling pathways. We observed that AICAR increased insulin- and IGF-1-induced phosphorylation of PKB, whereas phosphorylation of S6K-1 was decreased. Moreover, AICAR and metformin inhibited the ability of insulin and IGF-1 to induce HIF-1alpha expression. These results show that AICAR and insulin/IGF-1 regulate VEGF expression through different mechanisms.

Regulation of hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1 activity and expression of HIF hydroxylases in response to insulin-like growth factor I.

Hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1), a transcription factor composed of two subunits (HIF-1alpha and HIF-1beta), initially described as a mediator of adaptive responses to changes in tissue oxygenation, has been shown to be activated in an oxygen-independent manner. In this report, we studied the action of IGF-I on the regulation of HIF-1 in human retinal epithelial cells. We show that IGF-I stimulates HIF-1alpha accumulation, HIF-1alpha nuclear translocation, and HIF-1 activity by regulation of HIF-1alpha expression through a posttranscriptional mechanism. In addition, we demonstrate that IGF-I stimulates HIF-1 activity through phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase/ mammalian target of rapamycin and MAPK-dependent signaling pathways leading to VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor) mRNA expression. Three human prolyl-hydroxylases PHD-1, -2, and -3 (PHD-containing protein) and an asparaginyl-hydroxylase factor inhibiting HIF-1, which regulate HIF-1alpha stability and HIF-1 activity in response to hypoxia, have been described. Our analysis of their mRNA expression showed a different magnitude and time course of expression pattern in response to insulin and IGF-I compared with CoCl(2). Taken together, our data reveal that growth factors and CoCl(2), which mimics hypoxia, lead to HIF-1 activation and ensuing VEGF expression by different mechanisms. Their joined actions are likely to lead to an important and sustained increase in VEGF action on retinal blood vessels, and hence to have devastating effects on the development of diabetic retinopathy.

Grb10 prevents Nedd4-mediated vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-2 degradation.

One of the cellular mechanisms used to prevent continuous and enhanced activation in response to growth factors is the internalization and degradation of their receptors. Little is known about the molecular mechanisms involved in vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-2 (VEGF-R2) degradation. In a previous work, we have shown that the adaptor protein Grb10 is a positive regulator of the VEGF signaling pathway. Indeed, VEGF stimulates Grb10 expression, and Grb10 overexpression induces an increase in the amount and the tyrosine phosphorylation of VEGF-R2. In the present manuscript, we demonstrate that Grb10 stimulates VEGF-R2 expression by inhibiting the Nedd4-mediated VEGF-R2 degradation. First, we show that proteasome inhibition by MG132 induces an increase in VEGF-R2 amount, and that VEGF-R2 is ubiquitinated in response to VEGF. Expression of Nedd4, a HECT domain-containing ubiquitin ligase, induces the disappearance of VEGF-R2 in cells, suggesting that Nedd4 is involved in VEGF-R2 degradation. To determine whether Nedd4 directly ubiquitinates VEGF-R2, we expressed a ubiquitin ligase-deficient mutant Nedd4C854S. In the presence of Nedd4C854S, VEGF-R2 is expressed and ubiquitinated. These results suggest that VEGF-R2 is ubiquitinated but that Nedd4 is not involved in this process. Finally, we show that Grb10 constitutively associates with Nedd4. Co-expression of Nedd4 and Grb10 restores the expression of VEGF-R2, suggesting that Grb10 inhibits the Nedd4-mediated degradation of VEGF-R2. In this study, we show that Grb10 acts as a positive regulator in VEGF-R2 signaling and protects VEGF-R2 from degradation by interacting with Nedd4, a component of the endocytic machinery.

Insulin stimulates hypoxia-inducible factor 1 through a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/target of rapamycin-dependent signaling pathway.

Hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-1) is a transcription factor involved in normal mammalian development and in the pathogenesis of several disease states. It consists of two subunits, HIF-1alpha, which is degraded during normoxia, and HIF-1beta, which is constitutively expressed. Activated HIF-1 induces the expression of genes involved in angiogenesis, erythropoiesis, and glucose metabolism. We have previously reported that insulin stimulates vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression (). In this study, we show that insulin activates HIF-1, leading to VEGF expression in retinal epithelial cells. Insulin activates HIF-1alpha protein expression in a dose-dependent manner with a maximum reached within 6 h. The expression of HIF-1alpha is correlated with the activation of HIF-1 DNA binding activity and the transactivation of a HIF-1-dependent reporter gene. Insulin does not appear to affect HIF-1alpha mRNA transcription but regulates HIF-1alpha protein expression through a translation-dependent pathway. The expression of an active form of protein kinase B and treatment of cells with specific inhibitors of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), MAPK, and target of rapamycin (TOR) show that mainly PI3K and to a lesser extent TOR are required for insulin-induced HIF-1alpha expression. HIF-1 activity and VEGF expression are also dependent on PI3K- and TOR-dependent signaling. In conclusion, we show here that insulin regulates HIF-1 action through a PI3K/TOR-dependent pathway, resulting in increased VEGF expression.