University makes me angry: Investigating stimulus-response (S-R) and cognitive-mediation (C-M) emotion beliefs in undergraduate students.

Emotion regulation through cognitive reappraisal is well-studied, but less so are the predispositional and superordinate beliefs that influence reappraisal. Recently, researchers developed the cognitive mediation beliefs questionnaire (CMBQ), which measures two emotion beliefs, namely stimulus-response (S-R) generation beliefs and cognitive mediation (C-M) change beliefs. In working populations S-R generation beliefs are inversely related to cognitive reappraisal tendencies and positive mental health, and positively related to emotion reactivity. C-M change beliefs are positively related to cognitive reappraisal tendencies, and inversely related to emotion reactivity and positive mental health. As yet, there is no evidence for the validity of the CMBQ within student samples, or for the associations between its subscales and cognitive reappraisal, emotion reactivity, and positive mental health. Therefore, in the present study the CMBQ is tested for factorial, convergent (associations with cognitive reappraisal), and concurrent (associations with emotion reactivity and positive mental health) validity in a cohort of 621 undergraduate students in the United Kingdom (U.K.). Results indicate support for the factorial and convergent validity of the CMBQ, with mixed evidence for the concurrent validity of the CMBQ. A CM-SR discrepancy score appeared to provide a promising variable when associated with emotion reactivity and positive mental health. The findings are discussed in terms of practical and research implications of the findings.

The mediating role of proactive coping in the relationships between stress mindset, challenge appraisal tendencies, and psychological wellbeing.

Objective: Stress is ubiquitous and how individuals view the nature of stress can influence psychological wellbeing. The present study aimed to investigate the mediating role of proactive coping on the relationships between stress mindset and challenge appraisal tendencies and examine how this in turn related to psychological wellbeing. A secondary aim was to investigate if there were any differences in stress mindset between athletes and non-athletes. It was hypothesised that stress mindset would be indirectly positively associated with challenge appraisal tendencies through proactive coping, that a challenge appraisal tendency would positively relate to vitality, and that vitality would negatively relate to depressive symptoms. It was also hypothesised that athletes would possess more facilitative views of stress compared with non-athletes. Methods: Two hundred and seven individuals (n = 101 athletes, n = 106 non-athletes, Mage = 22.76 years, SD = 4.94) completed an online questionnaire pack assessing stress mindset, proactive coping, challenge appraisal tendencies, vitality, and depressive symptoms. Results: Using path analysis, the hypothesised model demonstrated a good fit to the data and the positive relationship between stress mindset and challenge appraisal tendencies was mediated by proactive coping. Challenge appraisal tendencies were positively associated with vitality, which was negatively associated with depressive symptoms. Athletes reported a significantly greater 'stress-is-enhancing' mindset, greater vitality, and fewer depressive symptoms than non-athletes. Conclusion: Findings offer support for the role that stress mindset has in potentially influencing psychological wellbeing and offer the novel suggestion that this mechanism may operate through proactive coping and challenge appraisal tendencies.

Examination of cognitive appraisals, irrational beliefs, and challenge and threat evaluations in the prediction of tournament affective states and performance of competitive elite Indian golfers.

Researchers have intimated that cognitions and emotions can change in the lead up to important events. However, previous research has adopted atemporal cross-sectional designs, making it challenging to understand how cognitions and emotions unfold in the lead up to a competition. In the current study, we extended previous research by examining the temporal patterns of cognitive appraisals, irrational beliefs, and challenge and threat evaluations in predicting pre-competitive affective states (hedonic balance and anxiety) in the lead up to an actual competition, among competitive elite Indian golfers (N = 107). We adopted a within-subjects repeated-measures design and collected data in the lead up to an actual golf tournament, at three timepoints; 1 week before (T1), the night before (T2), and an hour prior (T3). Self-reported measures of cognitive appraisals, irrational beliefs, challenge and threat evaluations, affect, and anxiety were completed. Also, objective golf performance was collected from participants. Crossed-lagged path analysis did not find a causal effect for irrational beliefs on any of the variables across the three time points. On the other hand, hierarchical multiple regression analysis determined that changes in irrational beliefs predicted changes in cognitive appraisals, threat evaluation, cognitive and somatic anxiety, and the directional interpretation of anxiety. The findings of temporal patterns in the current research indicated that sport psychologists should consider the dynamic nature of antecedent cognitions and affective states in the lead up to competition, and accordingly provide adequate support to the athletes. Further, limitations and future research is discussed with reference to the results.

The role of social support and social identification on challenge and threat cognitive appraisals, perceived stress, and life satisfaction in workplace employees.

There is an emergent literature highlighting the positive role of social support and social identification in buffering against the deleterious effects of psychological stressors. Yet, we have limited understanding of how exactly these social factors fit within contemporary stress and coping theory. To advance and gain a greater understanding of these social factors, we explore the associations of social support and social identification on individuals' challenge and threat cognitive appraisals and how this then relates to perceived stress, life satisfaction, turnover intentions, and job performance. A total of 412 workplace employees from private and public sector occupations completed state measures around a recent most stressful experience at work. Results revealed atemporal associations between cognitive resource appraisals with both social support and social identification. Specifically, greater identification with colleagues and lower threat were related to less perceived stress, while having greater social identification (with colleagues and organisation), social support, and lower threat, were related to greater life satisfaction. Greater perceived stress, and lower social identification and life satisfaction, were also related to greater turnover intentions. While greater identification with the organisation and life satisfaction, along with lower perceived stress were related to greater job performance. Taken together, this research provides evidence that social support and social identification play a positive role when trying to promote more adaptive responses to stressful situations.

Understanding the influence of irrational beliefs and body image inflexibility on exercise dependence and psychological well-being: A latent profile analysis approach.

Irrational beliefs are a risk factor for mental ill-health and exercise dependence. In addition to this, researchers have also proposed that body image inflexibility can determine mental health and behavioural outcomes. However, research is yet to explore whether and to what extent irrational beliefs and body image inflexibility align to influence mental health and exercise dependence. We examined the latent profile structure of irrational beliefs and body image inflexibility, and how these latent profiles relate to mental health and exercise dependence in exercise active adults. Results indicate a two class profile, whereby class 1 is characterized by high irrational beliefs and body image inflexibility, and class 2 is characterized by low irrational beliefs and body image inflexibility. Those in class 1 reported significantly greater depression, anxiety, stress, and exercise dependence than those in class 2 (p ≤ .02). The findings are discussed in relation to the implications for practitioners in the mental health of exercise participants.

"I must be perfect": The role of irrational beliefs and perfectionism on the competitive anxiety of Hungarian athletes.

In this study the influence of irrational beliefs and perfectionism on the emergence of competitive anxiety was investigated. While previous studies indicate that higher irrational beliefs predict greater competitive anxiety, in the present study it is hypothesized that this relationship is mediated by perfectionism. A serial atemporal multiple mediation analysis revealed that both adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism were significant partial mediators between irrational beliefs and competitive anxiety. The total score and all four subscale scores on irrational beliefs had both direct and indirect effects on cognitive competitive anxiety, the latter effects mediated by both forms of perfectionism. Depreciation beliefs had a direct effect, and demandingness and awfulizing had indirect effects, on somatic competitive anxiety when both forms of perfectionism were entered as mediators. These findings suggest that both irrational beliefs and perfectionism influence the emergence of competitive anxiety, therefore rational emotive behavioral therapy with a focus upon perfectionism may be an effective means of reducing competitive anxiety in athletes.

Link Between Irrational Beliefs and Important Markers of Mental Health in a German Sample of Athletes: Differences Between Gender, Sport-Type, and Performance Level.

In this article, we conducted the first meaningful study of irrational beliefs (IBs) in a German sample of athletes. Moreover, we investigated associations between IBs and potential general as well as sport-specific markers of mental health in German athletes. As general markers, we considered psychological distress and wellbeing in addition to IBs, and as sport-specific markers, we considered anxiety, perfectionism, and athletic identity. To achieve this, our first step was to translate and validate a specific measure of irrational beliefs, namely the Irrational Performance Beliefs Inventory (iPBI). The iPBI is a performance-relevant measure that captures specific IB, taking into account the situational circumstances of the target population, namely operators in different performance context (academia, sports, business, medicine, etc.). Its theoretical basis is largely Ellis' work on rational and irrational beliefs. We developed a short and a long version of the iPBI, which both capture four core IBs (i.e., demandingness, awfulization, low frustration tolerance, and depreciation). Factorial validity was confirmed by a confirmatory factor analysis (comparative fit index = 0.92) with data from 234 athletes. Both versions of the newly developed iPBI showed good internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha > 0.77) and retest reliability (intra-class correlation coefficients >0.71). Results of the correlational analyses indicated low positive relationships between IBs and athletes' psychological distress, and low negative relations between IBs and wellbeing. In terms of sport-specific markers, there were low to moderate correlations with IBs. This study also examined the differences in IBs between females and males, individual and team sport athletes, and across three different performance levels. Implications of these findings are discussed along with approaches for future research and applied work.

Knowing your ABCs: Extending the assessment of stimulus-response (S-R) and cognitive-mediation (C-M) beliefs.

Recently, researchers have proposed four superordinate emotion beliefs that supposedly influence emotion regulation and emotion reactivity. Two of these proposed emotion beliefs are captured in the cognitive mediation beliefs questionnaire (CMBQa), namely stimulus-response (S-R) generation beliefs and cognitive mediation (C-M) change beliefs. The remaining two proposed emotion beliefs, C-M generation beliefs and S-R change beliefs, are yet to be operationalised in psychometric form. It is important to validate measurement for all four emotion beliefs in order for them to be used in research and practice. The current paper reports the development and initial validity testing of the CMBQb (studies 1-3), which concerns only C-M generation beliefs and S-R change beliefs, and then tests the four-factor structure of the combined CMBQa (S-R generation, C-M change) and CMBQb (C-M generation, S-R change): the CMBQc (study 4). Some support was found for the four-factor structure of the CMBQc, with factor analyses revealing good fit to the data with a four-factor solution. Also, scores indicating greater C-M generation and change beliefs, and lower S-R generation and change beliefs, were related to more adaptive, and less maladaptive, emotion regulation tendencies. In addition, there was some evidence that greater C-M change beliefs, and lower S-R generation and change belief, were related to better affective and emotion reactivity outcomes. Implications of the CMBQc for research and practice are discussed within the context and emotion regulation science, and cognitive behavioural psychotherapy.

Using Personal-Disclosure Mutual-Sharing (PDMS) with first-year undergraduate students transitioning to higher education.

BACKGROUND: Using Personal-Disclosure Mutual-Sharing (PDMS) with students transitioning to Higher Education (HE) has yet to be researched in education. AIMS: In two studies, we aimed to explore the immediate effects of a Coping Oriented Personal-Disclosure Mutual-Sharing (COPDMS) intervention on first-year undergraduate students' relational and organizational identification, perceived social support availability, and self-efficacy for learning and performance. In our second study, we also aimed to examine student-perceptions of participating in a COPDMS intervention. SAMPLE AND METHODS: At the beginning of induction week in both studies, first-year undergraduate students on the same degree programme at a HE provider in England received an education session where COPDMS was introduced. Students participated in a COPDMS session a few days later. During COPDMS sessions, students mutually-shared and disclosed personal information and/or stories relating to transitional experiences. RESULTS: Across both studies, students' relational identification with staff and perceived emotional, esteemed, and informational support availability from others on the degree programme significantly increased from pre- to post-COPDMS phases. Findings relating to relational identification with other Year 1 students and perceived availability of tangible support were mixed. No significant changes occurred for organizational identification with the university and self-efficacy for learning and performance. In Study 2, five higher-order themes relating to students' perceptions of COPDMS were found: (1) emotionality; (2) personal development; (3) storytelling; (4) enhanced group processes; and (5) task appropriateness and value. CONCLUSIONS: Study findings provide evidence that COPDMS is a useful psychological intervention to deliver to students transitioning to HE. Practical considerations, limitations, and future research suggestions are provided.

Assessing beliefs about emotion generation and change: The conceptualisation, development, and validation of the Cognitive Mediation Beliefs Questionnaire (CMBQ).

The ability to regulate emotions is important for human function and health. That emotion regulation can be achieved through cognitive change is predicated on the notion of cognitive mediation. However, the extent to which individuals believe that their emotions are cognitively mediated (C-M), or in contrast, that their emotions occur via stimulus-response (S-R), is underexplored, and whether C-M and S-R beliefs shape emotion reactivity is not yet known. Research that addresses these empirical needs could inform emotion regulation interventions such as cognitive behavioural therapies (CBTs). The current paper reports the development and initial validity testing of the cognitive mediation beliefs questionnaire (CMBQ). Five studies report the factor structure, the construct and criterion validity, and the test-retest reliability of the CMBQ. The CMBQ was found to have a correlated two-factor structure (C-M change beliefs, and S-R generation beliefs). Higher C-M change beliefs and lower S-R generation beliefs were related to greater emotion regulation, greater thought control ability, higher positive mental health, and lower emotion reactivity. The CMBQ also demonstrated acceptable test-retest reliability. Initial testing indicates that the CMBQ is a valid and reliable questionnaire for psychometric use in adult populations, including those with a diagnosed mental health condition.

More positive group memberships are associated with greater resilience in Royal Air Force (RAF) personnel.

In the current project, we examined how perceived group memberships (number, and characteristics, of), social and relational identification, and social identity leadership are associated with resilience in Royal Air Force (RAF) personnel. Based on social identity theorizing, we hypothesized positive associations between the number of groups, perceptions of their characteristics (e.g., positivity), and how they relate to each other (i.e., compatibility) and resilience (H1). We also hypothesized positive associations between both social identity leadership (H2) and resilience, and social and relational identification (H3) and resilience. Two hundred and forty-three personnel from 18 RAF bases completed an identity mapping exercise and measures of leadership, social and relational identification, and resilience. Our findings highlighted the importance of the association between positive group memberships and resilience, and social identification and resilience. Counter to our hypothesis, belonging to more groups was negatively associated with resilience, and there were non-significant relationships between three principles of social identity leadership and resilience, with embedding identity being significantly negatively associated with resilience. In support of social identity theorizing, the number of positive groups was positively associated with resilience, as was social identification. These findings indicate that, for RAF personnel, it is belonging to positive groups, both within and outside work, along with social identification, that is positively associated with resilience.

The effects of REBT on irrational beliefs, self-determined motivation, and self-efficacy in American Football.

It has been suggested in recent research that rational beliefs as conceptualized within rational-emotive behaviour therapy (REBT) can be operationalized as strategic self-talk, but this has yet to be meaningfully investigated. The current study examines the effects of five one-to-one REBT sessions with three amateur American Football athletes to foster rational self-talk. The purpose of the intervention was to reduce the irrational beliefs, but also in line with recent applied REBT research, to increase the self-determined motivation and self-efficacy of the athletes. Using an idiographic single-case, staggered multiple-baseline across participants design, visual analyses revealed meaningful increases in self-determined motivation and self-efficacy, adjunct to decreases in total irrational beliefs across all participants. Social validation data supported these outcomes. These findings add to the growing research indicating that REBT can influence motivational approaches in athletes, such as self-determined motivation and self-efficacy. Results are discussed in relation to processes underlying the mechanisms of change, while also reporting the limitations of the study. The robustness of the research design increases the extent to which target variable changes can be attributed to REBT, but critical reflections are undertaken to assess the veracity of the findings.

Cognitive appraisals and team performance under stress: A simulation study.

OBJECTIVES: The present study explored how challenge and threat responses to stress relate to performance, anxiety, confidence, team identity and team characteristics (time spent in training and postgraduate experience) in a medical simulation-based team competition. METHODS: The study was conducted during a national simulation-based training event for residents, the SIMCUP Italia 2018. The SIMCUP is a simulation competition in which teams of four compete in simulated medical emergency scenarios. Cross-sectional data were collected prior to the 3 days of the competition. Subjects included 95 participants on 24 teams. Before the competition on each day, participants completed brief self-report measures that assessed demands and resources (which underpin challenge and threat responses to stress), cognitive and somatic anxiety, self-confidence and team identification. Participants also reported time (hours) spent practising as a team and years of postgraduate experience. A team of referees judged each scenario for performance and assigned a score. A linear mixed model using demands and resources was built to model performance. RESULTS: The data showed that both demands and resources have positive effects on performance (31 [11-50.3] [P < .01] and 54 [25-83.3] [P < .01] percentage points increase for unitary increases in demands and resources, respectively); however, this is balanced by a negative interaction between the two (demands * resources interaction coefficient = -10 [-16 to -4.2]). A high level of resources is associated with better performance until demands become very high. Cognitive and somatic anxieties were found to be correlated with demands (Pearson's r = .51 [P < .01] and Pearson's r = .48 [P < .01], respectively). Time spent training was associated with greater perceptions of resources (Pearson's r = .36 [P < .01]). CONCLUSIONS: We describe a model of challenge and threat that allows for the estimation of performance according to perceived demands and resources, and the interaction between the two. Higher levels of resources and lower demands were associated with better performance.

Investigating Irrational Beliefs, Cognitive Appraisals, Challenge and Threat, and Affective States in Golfers Approaching Competitive Situations.

On approach to competitive situations, affective states (emotions and anxiety) occur through the complex interaction of cognitive antecedents. Researchers have intimated that irrational beliefs might play an important role in the relationship between cognitive appraisals and affective states, but has ignored challenge and threat. In the current research, we examine the interaction between cognitive appraisals, irrational beliefs, and challenge and threat to predict golfers' pre-competitive affective states. We adopted a cross-sectional atemporal design to examine how golfers approached two different competitive situations: imagined imminent golf competition (phase 1), and actual future golf competition (phase 2). Path analysis revealed how cognitive appraisals, irrational beliefs, and challenge and threat interact to predict affective states among golfers. Serial atemporal multiple mediation analysis indicated that the relationships between cognitive appraisals and affective states were mediated by irrational beliefs and challenge and threat. Further, some differences were revealed between phase 1 and phase 2 in the serial multiple atemporal mediation results with regard to challenge. That is, at phase 1 no significant serial mediation was found for any affective outcomes, but at phase 2 significant serial mediation was found for all affective states, showing that irrational beliefs and challenge serial mediated the associations between cognitive appraisals and affective states. The finding that mediation and bivariate associations differed across phase 1 and phase 2 is echoed in the phase 1-phase 2 tests of differences. The current research makes a theoretical advancement by elucidating in more detail the complex interaction between cognitive antecedents and mediators of affective states. Specifically, the inclusion of challenge and threat alongside irrational beliefs and cognitive appraisals is an important theoretical advancement that builds on work inside of sport literature (e.g., Dixon et al., 2016) and outside of sport literature (e.g., David et al., 2002, 2005), as this constellation of theoretically related antecedents of affective states has not been examined together in the extant research.

The quest for accuracy of blood pressure measuring devices.

The accuracy of blood pressure (BP) measuring devices is fundamental to good practice and scientific research. International guidelines on BP measurement are provided for clinicians who diagnose and treat patients with hypertension, clinical researchers who conduct trials on the efficacy of BP lowering drugs and interventional strategies, epidemiologists who conduct population surveys to determine the demographic consequences of hypertension on society, and researchers who perform meta-analyses on published research to further influence the practice of medicine and the provision of resources. Although the outcomes of the endeavors of all these groups are dependent on the accuracy of BP measurements, the equipment is often of doubtful accuracy and the methodology of measurement is often poorly described and frequently not standardized. Thus, the fundamental element of hypertension evaluation has been largely ignored by both clinical practitioners and scientific researchers. Here, the authors briefly review the development of efforts to improve and validate the accuracy of BP measuring devices and highlight the deficiencies that persist. We conclude that, to protect the public from the serious consequences of inaccurate BP measurements, the following steps are required: (1) regulatory requirement for mandatory independent validation of all BP measuring devices using a universal protocol; (2) accreditation of laboratories for the performance of BP device validations; (3) online evaluation of validation studies with detection of protocol violations prior to publication of results; and (4) establishment of an independent scientific forum for the listing of accurate BP measuring devices.

Examining the relationships between challenge and threat cognitive appraisals and coaching behaviours in football coaches.

Previous research demonstrates that sports coaching is a stressful activity. This article investigates coaches' challenge and threat cognitive appraisals of stressful situations and their impact on coaching behaviour, using Blascovich and Mendes' (2000) biopsychosocial model as a theoretical framework. A cross-sectional correlational design was utilised to examine the relationships between irrational beliefs (Shortened general attitude and belief scale), challenge and threat appraisals (Appraisal of life events scale), and coaching behaviours (Leadership scale for sports) of 105 professional football academy coaches. Findings reveal significant positive associations between challenge appraisals and social support, and between threat appraisals and autocratic behaviour, and a significant negative association between threat appraisals and positive feedback. Results also show that higher irrational beliefs are associated with greater threat, and lesser challenge cognitive appraisals. However, no associations were revealed between irrational beliefs and challenge cognitive appraisals. Additionally, findings demonstrate a positive relationship between age and training and instruction. Results suggest that practitioners should help coaches to appraise stressful situations as a challenge to promote positive coaching behaviours.

Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), Irrational and Rational Beliefs, and the Mental Health of Athletes.

In this article Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) is proposed as a potentially important framework for the understanding and promotion of mental health in athletes. Cognitive-behavioral approaches predominate in the provision of sport psychology, and often form the backbone of psychological skills training for performance enhancement and maintenance. But far from being solely performance-focused, the cognitive-behavioral approach to sport psychology can restore, promote, and maintain mental health. This review article presents REBT (Ellis, 1957), the original cognitive behavioral therapy, as a valuable approach to addressing mental health issues in sport. REBT holds that it is not events that directly cause emotions and behaviors. Rather, it is one's beliefs about the events that lead to emotional and behavioral reactivity. Further, REBT distinguishes between rational and irrational beliefs, and suggests that in response to failure, maltreatment, and misfortune, people can react with either healthy or unhealthy emotional and behavioral responses. The extant research indicates that irrational beliefs lead to unhealthy negative emotions, a range of pathological conditions, and a host of maladaptive behaviors that undermine mental health. Therefore, REBT proposes a process for the reduction of irrational beliefs and the promotion of rational beliefs. The use of REBT in sport is seldom reported in literature, but research is growing. This review article proposes three important areas of investigation that will aid the understanding of irrational beliefs and the application of REBT within sport. These areas are: (1) the influence of irrational beliefs and REBT on the mental health of athletes, (2) the influence of irrational beliefs and REBT on athletic performance, (3) the origins and development of irrational beliefs in athletes. Each area is discussed in turn, offering a critical and progressive review of the literature as well as highlighting research deficits, and recommendations to address each of the three areas of investigation.

Does Replacing Sodium Excreted in Sweat Attenuate the Health Benefits of Physical Activity?

International guidelines suggest limiting sodium intake to 86-100 mmol/day, but average intake exceeds 150 mmol/day. Participants in physical activities are, however, advised to increase sodium intake before, during and after exercise to ensure euhydration, replace sodium lost in sweat, speed rehydration and maintain performance. A similar range of health benefits is attributable to exercise and to reduction in sodium intake, including reductions in blood pressure (BP) and the increase of BP with age, reduced risk of stroke and other cardiovascular diseases, and reduced risk of osteoporosis and dementia. Sweat typically contains 40-60 mmol/L of sodium, leading to approximately 20-90 mmol of sodium lost in one exercise session with sweat rates of 0.5-1.5 L/h. Reductions in sodium intake of 20-90 mmol/day have been associated with substantial health benefits. Homeostatic systems reduce sweat sodium as low as 3-10 mmol/L to prevent excessive sodium loss. "Salty sweaters" may be individuals with high sodium intake who perpetuate their "salty sweat" condition by continual replacement of sodium excreted in sweat. Studies of prolonged high intensity exercise in hot environments suggest that sodium supplementation is not necessary to prevent hyponatremia during exercise lasting up to 6 hr. We examine the novel hypothesis that sodium excreted in sweat during physical activity offsets a significant fraction of excess dietary sodium, and hence may contribute part of the health benefits of exercise. Replacing sodium lost in sweat during exercise may improve physical performance, but may attenuate the long-term health benefits of exercise.