The importance of conative factors for individual differences in attention control.

Relations between conative factors (task-specific motivation, attention self-efficacy, and self-set goals) and individual differences in attention control (AC) performance were investigated in two latent variable studies. Participants performed AC tasks along with measures of working memory and processing speed. During the AC tasks, participants self-reported their motivation, self-efficacy, and self-set goals for the tasks. Task-unrelated thoughts were also assessed. Confirmatory factor analyses demonstrated that latent factors for the constructs could be formed and the conative factors were each related to the AC factor. Structural equation modeling further suggested that the conative factors tended to account for unique variance in attention, even after accounting for shared variance with working memory and processing speed. These results provide evidence that conative factors are important for individual differences in AC and further suggest that multiple factors likely contribute to variation in performance on AC tasks. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

An examination of individual differences in levels of processing.

The present study examined individual differences in levels of processing. Participants completed a cued recall task in which they made either rhyme or semantic judgements on pairs of items. Pupillary responses during encoding were recorded as a measure of the allocation of attentional effort and participants completed multiple measures of working and long-term memory. The results suggested levels of processing effect in both accuracy and pupillary responses with deeper levels of processing demonstrating higher accuracy and larger pupillary responses than shallower levels of processing. Most participants demonstrated levels of processing effect, but there was substantial variability in the size of the effect. Variation in levels of processing was positively related to individual differences in long-term memory and the magnitude of the pupillary levels of processing effect, but not working memory. These results suggest that some of the variation in levels of processing is likely due to individual differences in the allocation of attentional effort (particularly to items processed deeply) during encoding.

Individual differences in attention control: A meta-analysis and re-analysis of latent variable studies.

A meta-analysis and re-analysis of prior latent variable studies was conducted in order to assess whether there is evidence for individual differences in broad attention control abilities. Data from 90 independent samples and over 23,000 participants suggested that most (84.4%) prior studies find evidence for a coherent attention control factor with average factor loadings of .51. This latent attention control factor was related to other cognitive ability factors including working memory, shifting, fluid intelligence, long-term memory, reading comprehension, and processing speed, as well as to self-reports of task-unrelated thoughts and task specific motivation. Further re-analyses and meta-analyses suggest that the results remained largely unchanged when considering various possible measurement issues. Examining the factor structure of attention control suggested evidence for sub-components of attention control (restraining, constraining and sustaining attention) which could be accounted for a by a higher-order factor. Additional re-analyses suggested that attention control represents a broad ability within models of cognitive abilities. Overall, these results provide evidence for attention control abilities as an important individual differences construct.

Effects of goal-setting on sustained attention and attention lapses.

In three experiments, we examined the effects of goal-setting on sustained attention and attention lapses. We measured both behavioral task performance and subjective attentional states during a four -choice reaction time task (Experiments 1 and 2 administered online; Experiment 3 conducted in-person). Experiment 1 compared a vague goal versus a specific goal. The specific goal reduced lapses in the form of long response times (RTs) but did not impact task-unrelated thoughts. Experiment 2 expanded on E1 by making the specific goal progressively harder. Behavioral lapses (i.e., long RTs) were reduced in the harder-over-time goal condition compared to the control condition. Additionally, while RTs increased with time-on-task in the control condition, RTs in the harder-over-time goal condition remained stable with time-on-task. Experiment 3 aimed to replicate the results of E2 in-person and adjusted the difficulty of the harder-over-time goals to be slightly harder. The results largely replicated E2. Overall, setting specific and difficult task goals led to a reduction in lapses of attention and increased sustained attention performance.

Pupillary correlates of preparatory control in the Stroop task.

In three experiments, individual differences in preparatory control in the Stroop task were examined. Participants performed variants of the Stroop task while pupillary responses were examined during the preparatory interval. Variation in working memory capacity was also examined. High Stroop performers tended to demonstrate larger preparatory pupillary responses than low Stroop performers. In Experiment 2, when participants were given pre-cues indicating the congruency of the upcoming trial (MATCHING vs. CONFLICTING), high Stroop performers had larger preparatory pupillary responses for incongruent trials compared to congruent trials, whereas low Stroop performers demonstrated similar preparatory pupillary responses on both incongruent and congruent trials. These results suggest that variation in Stroop performance is partially due to individual differences in the ability to ramp up and regulate the intensity of attention allocated to preparatory control processes. Additionally, there was limited evidence that preparatory control processes partially account for the relation between working memory capacity and performance on the Stroop. Overall, these results provide evidence that individual differences in Stroop performance are partialy due to variation in preparatory control.

Pupillary motility responses to affectively salient stimuli in individuals with depression or elevated risk of depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Elaborative affective processing is observed in depression, and pupillary reactivity, a continuous, sensitive, and reliable indicator of physiological arousal and neurocognitive processing, is increasingly utilized in studies of depression-related characteristics. As a first attempt to quantitively summarize existing evidence on depression-related pupillary reactivity alterations, this review and meta-analysis evaluated the direction, magnitude, and specificity of pupillary indices of affective processing towards positively, negatively, and neutrally-valenced stimuli among individuals diagnosed with depression or with elevated risk of depression. Studies on pupillary responses to affective stimuli in the target groups were identified in PsycINFO and PubMed databases. Twenty-two articles met inclusion criteria for the qualitative review and 16 for the quantitative review. Three-level frequentist and Bayesian models were applied to summarize pooled effects from baseline-controlled stimuli-induced average changes in pupillary responses. In general, compared to non-depressed individuals, individuals with depression or elevated risk of depression exhibited higher pupillary reactivity (d =0.15) towards negatively-valenced stimuli during affective processing. Pupillary motility towards negatively-valenced stimuli may be a promising trait-like marker for depression vulnerability.

Oculometric indicators of individual differences in preparatory control during the antisaccade task.

Individual differences in preparatory control in the antisaccade task were examined in two experiments via an examination of pupillary responses and fixation stability during the preparatory delay. In both experiments, high attention control individuals (high-antisaccade performers) demonstrated larger pupillary responses during the preparatory delay than low attention control individuals (low-antisaccade performers). These results suggest that variation in antisaccade performance were partially due to individual differences in the ability to ramp up and regulate the intensity of attention allocated to preparatory control processes. Additionally, fixation stability, working memory capacity, susceptibility to off-task thinking, and task-specific motivation were found to correlate with antisaccade performance. Furthermore, both preparatory control and off-task thinking accounted for much of the relation between working memory capacity and antisaccade. These results provide evidence that individual differences in antisaccade performance are multifaceted and that variation in preparatory control (along with other factors) are critically important. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

The influence of working memory capacity and lapses of attention for variation in error monitoring.

In two experiments, individual differences in working memory capacity (WMC), lapses of attention, and error monitoring were examined. Participants completed multiple WMC tasks along with a version of the Stroop task. During the Stroop, pupil diameter was continuously monitored. In both experiments, error phasic pupillary responses were larger than phasic pupillary responses associated with correct incongruent and correct congruent trials. WMC and indicators of lapses of attention were correlated with error pupillary response, suggesting that high WMC and low lapse individuals had enhanced error monitoring abilities compared with low WMC and high lapse individuals. Furthermore, in Experiment 2 error awareness abilities were associated with WMC, lapses of attention, and the error phasic pupillary responses. Importantly, individual differences in the susceptibility to lapses of attention largely accounted for the relationship between WMC and error monitoring in both experiments. Collectively, these results suggest that WMC is related to error monitoring abilities, but this association is largely due to individual differences in the ability to consistently maintain task engagement and avoid lapses of attention.

Effort Mobilization and Lapses of Sustained Attention.

The current study examined whether effort mobilization would enhance sustained attention and reduce lapses of attention. Participants performed a sustained attention task and were randomly assigned to either an effort condition where they were instructed to "Try Hard" on a subset of trials or were assigned to a control condition with no "Try Hard" instructions. Pupillary responses were continuously recorded, and periodically during the task participants were presented with thought probes to determine whether they were on or off task. The results suggested within the effort condition there were no behavioral differences between Try Hard and "Standard" trials. Preparatory pupil responses were increased in Try Hard trials, but there were no differences for phasic pupillary responses to stimulus onset. In contrast, examining differences between the effort and control conditions suggested that participants who received the Try Hard instructions demonstrated faster overall performance, a reduction in very long reaction times, and reported fewer off-task thoughts compared with participants in the control condition. Participants in the effort condition also demonstrated a larger ramp-up in pupillary responses during the preparatory interval and a larger phasic response to stimulus onset compared with participants in the control condition. These results are consistent with attention allocation models suggesting that participants in the effort condition mobilized more attentional effort than participants in the control condition, resulting in enhanced sustained attention and a reduction in lapses of attention. These results also are consistent with recent theories, which suggest that the locus coeruleus norepinephrine system is associated with effort mobilization.

On the relation between working memory capacity and the antisaccade task.

Eight experiments (N = 2,003) assessed the relation between working memory capacity (WMC) and performance on the antisaccade task. Experiments 1-5 and 7 examined individual differences in aspects of goal management processes occurring during the preparatory delay of the antisaccade task. WMC tended to interact with delay interval suggesting that high WMC individuals better prepared for the upcoming trial by activating the task goal to a higher level than low WMC individuals (although these effects were generally small). Experiments 3a, 4, and 7 further demonstrated that individual differences in the consistency of attention (i.e., lapses of attention) were partially important for the relation between WMC and antisaccade performance. Experiment 5 demonstrated that knowledge of the likelihood of target location increased overall performance, but did not interact with WMC. Experiment 6 manipulated stimulus onset asynchrony and suggested that speed factors are also likely important for the relation between WMC and antisaccade performance. Finally, structural equation models in Experiment 7 suggested that lapses of attention and speed factors partially accounted for the relation between WMC and antisaccade, but WMC still accounted for unique variance in antisaccade. Collectively, the results suggest that multiple factors (goal activation, consistency of attention, and speed factors) contribute to the relation between variation in WMC and performance on the antisaccade task. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Examining the effects of goal-setting, feedback, and incentives on sustained attention.

Across four experiments we examined the effects of goal-setting, feedback, and incentivizing manipulations on sustained attention. In addition to measuring task performance, we measured subjective attentional states and momentary feelings of motivation and alertness. Experiment 1 compared two specific goal conditions-one difficult and one easy-with a standard set of instructions. The specific goal conditions both reduced RTs and attenuated the vigilance decrement but did not impact task engagement (motivation or task-unrelated thoughts). Experiment 2 manipulated both goal-setting and feedback across conditions. The combination of a specific goal and feedback had strong effects on both task performance and task engagement. Additionally, feedback increased task engagement (higher motivation and fewer task-unrelated thoughts) regardless of whether or not it was paired with a specific goal. Experiment 3 examined the effect of pairing goals with a reward. Participants in one reward condition (time-based incentive) reported higher motivation but did not show better task performance. Offering a cash incentive to meet a goal did not have an effect on any dependent variables. Finally, in an effort to examine whether more moderately-difficult goals might lead to optimal performance, Experiment 4 examined a broader range of goals. However, we did not see an effect of a moderately-difficult goal on any of the dependent variables. Although some of the experimental manipulations were effective in mitigating the vigilance decrement, none eliminated it. We discuss the theoretical implications of the results with regard to goal-setting theory and theories of vigilance. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Is working memory capacity related to baseline pupil diameter?

The relation between working memory capacity (WMC) and baseline pupil diameter was examined. Participants (N = 341) performed several WMC tasks and baseline pupil diameter was measured in a dark room with a black background screen. The results indicated a weak and non-significant correlation between WMC and baseline pupil diameter consistent with some prior research. A meta-analysis of available studies (k = 26; N = 4356) similarly indicated a weak and non-significant correlation between WMC and baseline pupil diameter. Moderator analyses indicated that the primary moderator responsible for heterogeneity across studies was where the study was conducted. Studies from one laboratory tend to demonstrate a significant positive correlation, whereas other laboratories have yet to demonstrate the correlation. Broadly, the results suggest that the correlation between WMC and baseline pupil diameter is weak and not particularly robust.

Encoding dynamics in free recall: Examining attention allocation with pupillometry.

In four experiments pupillary responses were used to examine attention allocation and encoding dynamics in free recall. In Experiment 1, pupillary responses increased (and then decreased) across serial position suggesting that attention was increasingly allocated to items during learning until working memory was overloaded. In Experiment 2, manipulating presentation duration resulted in larger and more sustained pupillary responses with increased presentation duration, suggesting that participants were likely engaging in more elaborative and attention-demanding processes. In Experiment 3a, manipulating list-length resulted in decreased pupillary responses across serial position suggesting that participants were prioritizing early list items and less attention was allocated to later items. In Experiment 3b, when list-length was known, pupillary responses in the long-list length condition tended to decrease across serial position whereas pupillary responses in the short list-length condition tended to increase and decrease across serial positon. These results suggest that participants flexibly allocate attention to items during encoding depending on the nature of the task and the types of processes that are engaged in. These results further suggest the potential of utilizing pupillary responses to track attention allocation during learning.

Are individual differences in attention control related to working memory capacity? A latent variable mega-analysis.

The current study examined whether there are coherent individual differences in attention control abilities and whether they are related to variation in working memory capacity. Data were pooled from multiple studies over 12 years of data collection. Mega-analyses on the combined data set suggested that most of the attention control measures had adequate reliabilities and were weakly to moderately related to one another. A number of latent variable mega-analyses suggested that the attention control measures loaded onto a broad attention control factor and this factor was consistently related to working memory capacity. Furthermore, working memory capacity was generally related to each individual attention control measure. These results provide important evidence for the notion that there is a coherent attention control factor and this factor is related to working memory capacity consistent with much prior research. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Individual differences in lapses of sustained attention: Ocolumetric indicators of intrinsic alertness.

Two experiments examined individual differences in lapses of sustained attention. Participants performed variants of the psychomotor vigilance task while pupillary responses and fixations were recorded. Examining pupillary responses during the interstimulus interval in both experiments suggested that individuals particularly susceptible to lapses of attention (indexed by the slowest response times) demonstrated a decreased pupillary response during the interstimulus interval, whereas individuals less susceptible to lapses of attention demonstrated an increased pupillary response during the interstimulus interval. These results suggest that variation in lapses of attention are partially attributable to individual differences in the ability to voluntarily control the intensity of attention (intrinsic alertness) and fully engage preparatory processes on a moment-by-moment basis. Furthermore, across both experiments additional individual differences factors covaried with lapses of attention, including attention control, working memory capacity, susceptibility to off-task thinking, task-specific motivation, and fixation stability. These results provide evidence for the notion that individual differences in lapses of attention are multifaceted and that variation in intrinsic alertness and other factors are important contributors to this variation. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

A multi-faceted approach to understanding individual differences in mind-wandering.

The present study examined a multi-faceted approach to individual differences in mind-wandering. Further, the influence of task demands as a moderator of inter-individual relationships and the distinction between intentional and unintentional mind-wandering was also examined. A large sample (N = 332) of participants completed a battery of tasks during which mind-wandering was measured with periodic thought probes. One set of tasks placed relatively high demands on attention, whereas another set of tasks placed relatively low demands on attention. We also measured individual differences in working memory capacity and attention control, along with measures of state variables like motivation, alertness, and mood. Finally, participants completed a series of questionnaires to measure various personality traits. Overall, the results reinforced the importance of taking a multi-faceted approach to mind-wandering - one that address individual differences at the cognitive, contextual, and dispositional levels, as well as the distinction between intentional and unintentional mind-wandering.

Working memory capacity and sustained attention: A cognitive-energetic perspective.

A cognitive-energetic account of individual differences in working memory capacity (WMC) and sustained attention performance is proposed suggesting that variation in the voluntary control of the intensity of attention (intrinsic alertness) is critical for the relation between WMC and attention control. Four experiments examining individual differences were conducted to test this account. The results suggested that WMC was consistently related to the slowest reaction times in conditions where the interstimulus interval (ISI) was varied or was fixed at a long interval. Variation in WMC was not related to performance when the ISI was fixed at a short interval which is thought to decrease demands on intrinsic alertness. The current results are consistent with the hypothesis that normal variation in WMC and sustained attention performance are partially the result of individual differences in intrinsic alertness whereby low WMC individuals are less able to consistently control the intensity of attention than high WMC individuals. Other possible reasons for the relation between WMC and sustained attention performance such as differences in goal activation, speed of goal activation, goal maintenance during a trial, or sustaining goal maintenance across the duration of the task were associated with weaker and inconsistent evidence. Collectively we suggest that the current cognitive-energetic account can be used to understand individual differences in WMC and attention control and their relations with other cognitive abilities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Variation in attention at encoding: Insights from pupillometry and eye gaze fixations.

In 2 experiments, eye-tracking was used to examine individual differences in attention during encoding and their relation to associative learning. Pupillary responses were used as an indicator of the amount of attention devoted to items, whereas eye fixations provided a means of assessing attentional focus among items within each to-be-remembered word pair. In both experiments, participants performed a paired associates (PA) cued recall task while pupil diameter and eye fixations were simultaneously recorded. Results from Experiment 1 revealed that larger pupillary responses at encoding, as well as more alternating fixations between the Cue and Target items for each word pair (i.e., switches), was associated with increased learning ability. Critically, while Experiment 2 revealed that effective strategy use partially accounted for the relationship between pupillary responses and PA recall accuracy, pupillary responses still explained unique variance in PA recall accuracy-a result that held even when controlling for the influence of working memory capacity and long-term memory ability. Collectively, the results suggest attentional abilities at encoding are vital for successful learning. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Individual differences in encoding strategies and free recall dynamics.

Individual differences in encoding strategies and their relation to free recall dynamics were examined. Participants performed a delayed free recall task and following each list reported which strategies they may have used on the prior list. Individual differences in effective encoding strategy use were positively correlated with overall recall performance. Examining recall dynamics suggested that variation in effective encoding strategy use was associated with greater recall, particularly on non-primacy items and slightly more organised recall in terms of recall transitions. However, no differences were found for recall of items at the first serial position, in recall initiation, or in how quickly participants recalled items. Collectively, the results are consistent with the notion that effective encoding strategies increase the strength of items, resulting in a higher likelihood of recovering the items during recall. Individual differences in control processes in the form of effective encoding strategies are critically important for understanding normal variation in memory abilities.