Comparison of maternal and fetal health outcomes in the pandemic period of covid-19 with the same last year duration in health centers of second largest city of Iran: A population-based cohort study.

Objective: The exact link between COVID-19 pandemic and different adverse outcomes of pregnancy remains unclear. Plus, large-scale research is lacking. In the present study, we aimed to compare the maternal and fetal health outcomes during the COVID-19 pandemic with the same last year duration in Iran. Design: Two retrospective cohorts (pre-COVID-19 and during COVID-19) were studied. The pre-COVID-19 cohort include pregnant women who had given birth between January 1, 2019 and December 31, 2019. The COVID-19 cohort, who had given birth between January 1, 2020 and December 31, 2020. The characteristics of pregnant women before COVID-19 and during COVID-19 pandemic were compared with Fisher's exact test. Univariate and multivariate log-binomial regression models were used to determine the risk ratios of the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on adverse pregnancy outcomes. Results: Among 128968 women showed that women who had given birth during the pandemic were more likely to be of young age, lower rates of alcohol consumption and smoking, lower weight gain, and higher rates of using synthetic milk for feeding neonates (P < 0.05). Also, the risks of preterm labor were high (cOR 95% CI, 1.13 to 1.31; p < 0.01) and the risk of caesarian were low (cOR 95% CI, 0.95 0.92 to 0.98; p < 0.01) among pregnant women who gave birth during the COVID-19 pandemic compared with those who gave birth before the pandemic. Conclusions: In summary, we found that during the COVID-19 pandemic there were the higher risks of preterm labor and lower risk of caesarean among pregnant women.

Effect of Social Beliefs on Consumption of Dairy Products and Its Predicting Factors Based on the Transtheoretical Model: A Population-Based Study.

Background: Social beliefs on the consumption of dairy products are associated with health conditions, and the aim of this study is to investigate associated factors with the rate of dairy product intake, in accordance with social health-related beliefs and the elements predicting dairy consumption, based on the transtheoretical Model (TTM). Methods: 981 subjects (chosen from Mashhad citizens, Iran) were surveyed in random public places in 2014, using demographic surveys and questionnaires based on TTM and advantage/disadvantage by trained interviewers. Results: 981 Subjects with a mean age of 30.39 ± 14.83 were surveyed in dairy nonconsumer and dairy consumer groups. There was a significant relationship between dairy consumption and gender (P < 0.001). Factors such as age, educational level, job status, and opium addiction were found to be significantly associated with dairy consumption status. Young and female subjects consume more dairy products than their older and male counterparts, respectively. People with a diploma degree and lower levels of education consumed substantially more dairy products than their educated equals. Unemployed participants consumed considerably more dairy products than their fellow employed participants. Opium-addicted subjects were more likely to avoid dairy products. Conclusions: Despite the general belief of dairy consumption being beneficial, subjects in the precontemplation stage as nonconsumers described dairy products as of poor taste having low diversity in markets. Also, among the reasons, dairies' short shelf-life and behaviours under the influence of society and family were the mains. The termination stage's subjects as consumers consumed dairy products mostly for losing weight.

Impact of maternal psychosomatic empowerment during pregnancy on the improvement of mental health and maternal and fetal outcomes: A pilot study.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the effect of maternal psychosomatic empowerment during pregnancy on improving mental health in Mashhad, Iran. METHODS: In this quasi-experimental pilot study, 90 pregnant women were assigned into two groups. The intervention group was provided training sessions and routine care, while the control group only received routine care. The General Health Questionnaire - 28 (GHQ - 28) and Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) were completed by mothers in both groups. The data were analyzed in SPSS software by multivariate analysis of variance for repeated measures. RESULTS: The mean GHQ scores were reduced from 39.3 ± 14.8 and 43.1 ± 12.84 in the first stage to 15.7 ± 8.66 and 22.72 ± 11.3 in the fourth stage in the intervention and control groups, respectively. The results demonstrated a significant difference among the GHQ scores obtained at four stages (F = 244.057, P < 0.001), regardless of the group factor. CONCLUSIONS: The mothers subjected to the training sessions had a lower level of depression than their counterparts in the control group. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS: The findings encourage healthcare providers to improve mothers' mental health by implementing psychosomatic empowerment training during pregnancy.

Nanomicellar Curcumin Supplementation Improves the Clinical Manifestations of HAM/TSP Patients.

BACKGROUND: HTLV-1 infection causes a chronic, progressive, demyelinating, neuroinflammatory disease called HTLV-1-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP). Treatment of HAM/TSP patients which have high levels of proviral load and pro-inflammatory markers is a challenge for clinicians. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, and antiviral effects of curcumin in HAM/TSP patients. METHODS: In this study, 20 newly diagnosed HAM/TSP patients (2 men and 18 women) were enrolled and evaluated for clinical symptoms, HTLV-1 proviral load, Tax and HBZ expression, neopterin serum concentration, and complete blood count (CBC) before and 12 weeks after treatment with nanomicellar curcumin (80 mg/day, orally). RESULTS: Clinical symptoms such as the mean Osame Motor Disability Score and Ashworth Spasticity Scale Score were significantly improved after the treatment (P = 0.001 and P = 0.001). Sensory symptoms such as pain and paresthesia were significantly decreased in all of the patients (P = 0.001). Furthermore, urinary disorders, including urinary frequency, incontinence, and the feeling of incomplete bladder emptying, were significantly improved (P = 0.001, P = 0.003, and P = 0.03). However, the mean HTLV-1 proviral load (P = 0.97) and CBC were similar, whereas Tax, HBZ, and neopterin levels tend to increase after the treatment (P = 0.004, P = 0.08, and P = 0.04). CONCLUSION: Results suggest that curcumin can safely improve the clinical symptoms of HAM/TSP patients but has no observable positive effects on the HTLV-1 proviral load, Tax, and HBZ expression. Therefore, prolonged use or the use of curcumin with antiviral agents in addition to clinical signs and symptoms can reduce the HTLV-1 proviral load and the expression of functional viral factors such as Tax and HBZ.

Steps toward community health promotion: Application of transtheoretical model to predict stage transition regarding smoking.

BACKGROUND: Recently, the Iranian Ministry of Health estimated about 750,000 deaths are attributed smoking complications. The aim of this study was to apply the transtheoretical model (TTM) on general population of Mashhad city to evaluate the stages of change and possible cultural factors regarding smoking cessation. METHODS: This descriptive, cross-sectional population-based study was conducted in Mashhad, Iran. A total number of 562 participants selected by multistage sampling. They were asked about stages of change for smoking cessation for both hookah and cigarette smoking. Stages of change refer to an orderly sequence of changes in smoking behavior that people progress through according to the TTM. Its six stages are as follows: precontemplation (PC) (no intention to quit smoking within 6 months), contemplation (planning to quit smoking in the following 6 months), preparation (planning to stop smoking within 1 month), action (quit smoking for <6 months), maintenance (stopped smoking for 6 months or more), and termination (will never smoke again). Data were analyzed using tests such as Chi-square, Kruskal-Wallis, and logistic regression by SPSS 11.5. RESULTS: About 18% and 19% of people in this study were regular hookah and cigarette smokers, respectively. There was significant difference between cigarette smoking and sex (P < 0.001) and marital status (P = 0.01). There was a statistically significant difference between stages of change in men and women from the point of cigarette smoking (P < 0.001). Male sex, hookah smoking, and alcohol abuse were predictors of PC, and age was the only predictor of termination stage for cigarette smoking. Sex did not have any role in hookah smoking. CONCLUSION: Targeted education based on gender and marital status warrant attention. Community-wide education and interventions such as increasing the price of cigarettes are desired.

HTLV-1-infected asymptomatic carriers compared to HAM/TSP patients over-express the apoptosis- and cytotoxicity-related molecules.

HTLV-1 infection causes a chronic progressive debilitating neuroinflammatory disease which is called, HTLV-1-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP). One of the host defense mechanisms against viral infection is apoptosis which may control HTLV-1 infection. Therefore, we aimed to investigate this process and its interaction with viral factors in HTLV-1-infected asymptomatic carriers (ACs) compared to HAM/TSP patients. Fas, FasL, TRAIL, perforin, granzyme A, granzyme B, and granulysin gene expression and serum levels of Fas, FasL, TRAIL, and granulysin in the peripheral blood of 21 sex- and age-matched healthy controls (HCs), ACs, and HAM/TSP patients were evaluated. Also, the level of granulysin secretion in the cell culture supernatant was measured. Finally, the correlation of the expression of these molecules with HTLV-1 proviral load (PVL), Tax, and HBZ mRNA expression was analyzed. ACs compared to HAM/TSP patients significantly over-expressed the Fas, FasL, TRAIL, perforin, and granzyme B molecules. Fas, FasL, TRAIL, and granulysin serum levels were not different among studied groups; whereas, the secretion of granulysin was significantly decreased in ACs and HAM/TSP patients compared to HCs. Also, HAM/TSP patients expressed higher levels of HTLV-1 PVL, Tax, and HBZ mRNA. In addition, in ACs, inverse correlations between the Fas, FasL, TRAIL, perforin, granzyme B, and granulysin levels with HBZ mRNA expression were seen. ACs compared to HAM/TSP patients over-expressed the apoptosis- and cytotoxicity-related molecules. It could be concluded that successful control of the HTLV-1 infection and suppression of HAM/TSP development stem from the strong apoptosis and cytotoxic activity in the peripheral blood of ACs.

Curcumin increased the expression of c-FLIP in HTLV-1-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP) patients.

Human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1)-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP) disease is a chronic neuroinflammatory disease, which is associated with HTLV-1 infection. There is no effective and satisfactory treatment of HAM/TSP. It has been shown that curcumin exhibits modulatory effects on apoptosis and cytotoxicity-related molecules in HAM/TSP patients. In the present study, we examined the effect of curcumin on the gene expression of caspase-8, caspase-10, and anti-apoptotic protein c-FLIP, in HAM/TSP patients. Furthermore, we compared the expression of these molecules between HAM/TSP and asymptomatic carriers. Real-time PCR was performed to examine the mRNA expression of caspase-8, caspase-10, and c-FLIP in studied groups. The mRNA expression of caspase-8 and caspase-10 was similar before and after curcumin treatment in HAM/TSP patients (P > 0.05). The mRNA expression of c-FLIPL and c-FLIPs was higher after curcumin treatment compared with before treatment and significant differences were observed between the two groups (P = 0.004 and P = 0.044, respectively). The mRNA expression levels of caspase-8, caspase-10, c-FLIPL, and c-FLIPs were not statistically significant between HAM/TSP patients and asymptomatic carriers (P < 0.05). In conclusion, our results showed that curcumin increased the expression of c-FLIP in HAM/TSP patients which might suggest that, this molecule is involved in the apoptosis of HTLV-1-infected cells. Further studies with large sample size could be useful to clarify the role of this supplement in HAM/TSP patients.

Role of Receptors for Advanced Glycation End Products and High-Mobility Group Box 1 in the Outcome of Human T Cell Lymphotropic Type 1 Infection.

Human T cell lymphotropic type 1 (HTLV-1)-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP) is a chronic viral neuroinflammatory disease, which leads to damage of the central nervous system. Inflammatory responses and mediators are both involved in the pathogenesis of the disease and in determining its outcome. High-Mobility Group Box 1 (HMGB1) is a chromatin-associated nuclear protein acting as a signaling molecule in cells after binding to its receptors. Receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) is a transmembrane multiligand receptor that binds to HMGB1. HMGB1-RAGE signaling has an important role in inflammatory and infectious diseases. Inhibition of HMGB1 activity reduces the inflammation in immune-associated diseases. In the present study, we examined the gene expressions and plasma levels of HMGB1 and its receptor RAGE in HAM/TSP patients, HTLV-1-infected asymptomatic carriers (ACs), and healthy controls. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells were collected from all the groups and complementary DNA (cDNA) was synthesized. HMGB-1 messenger RNA (mRNA) expression was quantified by real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) TaqMan method, and plasma levels of HMGB1 and soluble RAGE (sRAGE) were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The mRNA expression of HMGB1 was the same among the groups (p > 0.05). No significant difference in the plasma levels of HMGB1 was observed between the groups (p > 0.05). The plasma levels of sRAGE were higher in ACs than HAM/TSP patients, and a significant difference was observed between the two groups (p < 0.001). Our results showed that sRAGE could play a potential role in the control of inflammatory response in HTLV-1 carriers through the inhibition of HMGB1 signaling and potentially could be used as an indicator for evaluation of HAM/TSP developing in HTLV-1-infected individuals.

Effects of a food product (based on Daucus carota) and education based on traditional Persian medicine on female sexual dysfunction: a randomized clinical trial.

BACKGROUND: Globally, female sexual dysfunction is a serious concern based on negative family and social consequences, high side effects of medications and lack of effective treatment. Thus, the evaluation of treatment approach for this problem is an important priority for healthcare systems. Sexual life and its related disorders are considered the main aspects of a healthy lifestyle in traditional Persian medicine (TPM). OBJECTIVE: The present study aimed to determine and compare the effects of food products containing Daucus carota, TPM-based training program, and a combination of these two interventions on the improvement of female sexual dysfunction. METHODS: This randomized clinical trial was conducted on 96 women with sexual dysfunction based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5®), aged 18-35 years who referred to the Gynecology Clinic of Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran, during 2016 and 2017. The patients were randomly divided into three groups (n=32) and received the intervention over an eight-week period. The first group was provided with TPM-based sexual health training, the second group received 30 g of a traditional food product (wild carrot halva: mixed Daucus carota and several herbs with honey) on a daily basis, and the third group received a combination of this traditional food product plus education. Data analysis was performed using Chi square test, repeated measures ANOVA, two-way ANOVA, ANCOVA, post hoc Bonferroni, Friedman and Wilcoxon signed-rank test in SPSS version 11.5. RESULTS: According to the results of this study, there was a significant difference in terms of sexual desire (p=0.002), lubrication (p=0.002), orgasm (p=0.004) and pain (p<0.001) after eight weeks of the intervention among the three groups. CONCLUSION: The use of two interventions of TPM including a food product containing Daucus carota and this product with TPM-based education improved desire, arousal, lubrication, orgasm, satisfaction and pain in females with sexual dysfunction. Furthermore, TPM-based education alone, led to the improvement of all domains of sexual dysfunction, except for pain in the females with sexual dysfunction. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The trial was registered at the Iranian Registry of Clinical Trials with the IRCT ID: IRCT2015122425681N1). FUNDING: The present study was supported by a grant from the Research Council, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran (ref. no.: 941503).

Predictors of public transportation in Mashhad: A population-based study.

BACKGROUND: The development of public transportation (PT) is a crucial issue in the modern societies. The aim of this study was to assess the status of PT usage among the population residing in Mashhad. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In a cross-sectional design, 464 citizens of Mashhad filled a checklist about PT-use (i.e., bus, taxi, and metro) to find their supporting and opposing factors in 2014. Chi-square, Mann-Whitney, Student's t-test, and logistic regressions were used for inferential analysis in SPSS 11.5. RESULTS: Mean age was 30.02 ± 11.24 years and 57% (263) were female. Bus (169, 50%) was the most popular PT means, followed by metro (98, 29%) and taxi (74, 21%). Most transportations were happened at morning (248, 35%) and evening (221, 31%). Increasing age (odds ratio [OR] =1.04, confidence interval [CI] 95% = 1.008-1.07), higher education (OR = 2.91, CI 95% = 1.14-7.38), being homemaker (OR = 2.97, CI 95% = 1.19-7.36), or student (OR = 2.91, CI 95% = 1.14-7.38) were predictors of PT-use. CONCLUSION: Individual preference between PT and driving is associated with social, economic, and cultural aspects of a population. Recognizing the influencing factors can help to design population-oriented services.

High-risk behaviors while driving: A population-based study from Iran.

OBJECTIVE: Traffic injuries are becoming one of the most important challenges of public health systems. Because these injuries are mostly preventable, the aim of this study is to evaluate the four main high-risk behaviors while driving. METHODS: This cross-sectional study was conducted on a random sample from the population of Mashhad, Iran, in 2014. A checklist and a previously validated questionnaire for the transtheoretical stages of change model (TTM) were used for data collection. Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS 11.5 software with P <.05 statistically significant. RESULTS: Totally 431 individuals were included with a mean age of 30 ± 11.3 years. Forty-three percent (183) were male. The TTM model revealed that participants were mostly in pre-actional phases regarding not using a cell phone while driving (80%), fastening the driver's seat belt (66%), front seat belt (68%), and rear seat belt (85%) The penalty was a protective factor only for using cellphone (odd ratio [OR] = 0.82, 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.68-0.98). Lower education (OR = 0.12, 95% CI, 0.01-0.94) and male gender (OR = 0.35, 95% CI, 0.14-0.83) were indicative of lower rates of fastening the front and rear seat belts. CONCLUSION: The stages of change model among study participants is a proper reflection of the effectiveness of the current policies. More serious actions regarding these high-risk behaviors should be considered in legislation.

Cluster analytical approach to Lifestyle characteristics: A population based study in Shiraz, Iran.

INTRODUCTION: A limited number of risky behaviors cause most morbidity and mortality. The aim of this study was to determine the possible clustering of lifestyle behaviors, including transportation behaviors, diet, physical activity, and smoking in Shiraz, Iran. METHODS: There were 776 representative Shirazi adults who participated in this cross-sectional study. The questionnaires were completed via person-to-person interviews. The datasets were searched for any clustering patterns. Cluster analysis was used for statistical analysis, and the data were analyzed using SPSS version 11.5. RESULTS: Three distinct clusters were identified. Cluster 1 was named "Healthy," and it included non-smokers, safe drivers, appropriate or acceptable fruit, vegetable, and fast-food consumers, and physically-active people. Cluster 2, "Moderately Healthy," was relatively risky drivers who had appropriate behaviors on the rest of the health-related behaviors. Cluster 3, "Unhealthy," was smokers, risky drivers, inappropriate or unacceptable fruit, vegetable & fast-food consumers, and a sedentary lifestyle. CONCLUSIONS: It was obvious that health-related behaviors were clustered together and unhealthy behaviors were not established in isolation.

Driving Behaviors in Iran: A Descriptive Study Among Drivers of Mashhad City in 2014.

BACKGROUND: Driver-related behaviors are substantial causes for motor vehicle accidents. It has been estimated that about 95% of all accidents are due to driver-related dangerous behaviors and approximately 60% of accidents are directly caused by driving behaviors. The aim of this study was to assess driving behaviors and its possible related factors among drivers in Mashhad city, Iran. METHOD: In a cross-sectional design, a total number of 514 drivers in Mashhad, Iran Surveyed. Manchester driver behavior questionnaire with 50 questions evaluated dangerous driving behaviors in 4 categories "aggressive violations", "ordinary violations", "errors" and "lapses". RESULTS: In this study, the median age of drivers was 31. Besides, 58.2% of men mentioned having a history of driving accident. Our study indicated smoking and alcohol drinking as risk factors of having more accidents. Hookah abuse is a predictor of aggressive violations and errors. CONCLUSION: This is the first study to assess the relation of personal car and its market value with the likelihood of having accidents. Due to major influences of driving fines, cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption and addiction on violations and errors, we recommend pivotal measures to be taken by road safety practitioners regarding driving surveillance.

A Trans-Theoretical Approach to Physical Activity Profile in General Population of Mashhad.

Regular physical-activity is necessity for a healthy lifestyle. Despite public health efforts, a minority of population are involved in healthy levels of physical-activity. This study provides evidence about exercise patterns and predictors of Mashhad-Iran population according to TTM change stages. In this cross-sectional study, we surveyed a total number of 564 participants from Mashhad in 2014 by using stages of change questionnaire. Analysis showed 23.4% of participants were in pre-contemplation stage, 18 in contemplation, 24.6% in preparation, 8.10% in action, 14.4% in maintenance and 11.5% were in termination phase. Age, gender, BMI, alcohol consumption, sleep duration, having compeer and encouragement were identified as predictors of pre-contemplation stage. Genders, having company and using bicycle for transportation were predictors of termination phase. Tailor interventions based on the predictors to enhance the physical activity among specific subgroups would be of interest.

Gaps and hurdles deter against following stroke guidelines for thrombolytic therapy in Iran: exploring the problem.

BACKGROUND: Insufficient information is available on the barriers that explain low rates of thrombolytic therapy for acute ischemic stroke (AIS) in developing countries compared with rates in developed societies. By the present study, we aimed to assess the implementation of thrombolytic therapy in the northeast of Iran to explore the gaps and hurdles against thrombolysis as the generally accepted treatment for AIS. METHODS: In a 1-year cohort study among AIS patients admitted to the second largest tertiary neurologic referral center in Iran, those who met the prespecified selection criteria were treated with intravenous recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rtPA). RESULTS: Among 1,144 patients admitted with AIS, only 14 (1.2%) were treated with rtPA. The mean onset-to-needle and door-to-needle times were 172 and 58 minutes, respectively; 980 (85.6%) patients were initially excluded from the study because of late arrival. Additionally, 60 patients in total were omitted because of either their high age (3.7%) or passing the gold standard time limit for rtPA therapy after preliminary evaluations (1.6%), and 90 more patients (7.9%) were considered not suitable for thrombolysis because of the severity of the symptoms or the higher risk of bleeding on rtPA. CONCLUSIONS: Access to thrombolytic therapy for AIS in Iran is less than in most developed countries but comparable with other developing countries. Awareness campaigns are needed to minimize barriers and improve access to thrombolysis and specialized stroke care in Iran.

Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices Regarding Pandemic H1N1 Influenza Among Medical and Dental Residents and Fellowships in Shiraz, Iran.

BACKGROUND: Influenza disease is one of the oldest medical problems that can cause severe illness and high mortality rates, worldwide. In flu pandemics, medical and dental students' knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) is critical to save patients life. The aim of this study was to determine the score of KAP toward the Pandemic H1N1 and their predictor factors among the medical and dental residents and fellowships of Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Iran. METHODS: In 2009, 125 participants were recruited in a convenient sampling cross-sectional survey. Self-reported questionnaire were used and results were analyzed applying appropriate statistical tests. RESULTS: The mean score of participants' knowledge, attitude and practice were 22.6, 21.1 and 26.5 respectively. Participants practice had significant linear positive correlation with knowledge and attitude. Also, their age was significantly and directly correlated to knowledge and practice. The educational major, age, and sex were significant predictors of responder's knowledge score and age was the only significant predictor of both attitude and practice scores. CONCLUSIONS: High knowledge is not sufficient lonely for improve attitude and practices. It seems that traditional educational models are not efficient and governments should emphasize to advanced and motivational education methods including health belief model and motivational interview at postgraduate levels. Perhaps younger students, dentists and males have less motivation to change their attitude and behavior, so we can focuses our interventions in these groups.

Are The Predictors of Hookah Smoking Differ From Those of Cigarette Smoking? Report of a population-based study in Shiraz, Iran, 2010.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of tobacco use and effect of lifestyle factors on cigarette and hookah use among adult residents of Shiraz, Iran. METHODS: In 2010, 1,000 participants were recruited in a multistage, random sampling cross-sectional population-based survey. RESULTS: Response rate was 98%. Prevalence of cigarette smoking was 9.7%. Among cigarette users, 12.6% reported smoking <1 year; 13.4% smoked 1-2 years and 73.9% smoked>2 years. Almost half of those surveyed (48.9%) smoked <10 cigarettes per day (cpd); 28.4% smoked 10-15 cpd; 14.8% smoked 16-19 cpd, and 8%>20 cpd. Almost a quarter (20.4%) of the cigarette smokers tried to quit in the past year. Being male, married, aged 37-54, having higher perceived levels of stress, a non-manual occupation, and sedentary lifestyle were positively associated with cigarette smoking. Manual labor occupations, housewife/jobless status, and going frequently to restaurants were positive predictors of hookah smoking. CONCLUSIONS: Compared to cigarettes, hookah smoking was more prevalent among Iranian adults. Approximately, the prevalence of hookah smoking in women is the same as men, whereas cigarette use was 31 times more common in men. Cigarette and hookah smoking were associated with less healthy lifestyle habits in both men and women.

Transportation behaviors in Shiraz, Iran.

OBJECTIVE: Motor vehicle accidents can occur as a result of improper driver behavior. There needs to be a comprehensive collection of information concerning driver behavior and its predisposing factors. METHODS: Study participants (500 males and 500 females ≥18 years old) living in Shiraz, Iran, were selected using a multistage sampling methodology. Data came from questionnaires completed using a face-to-face interview process. Independent variables such as age, gender, marital status, occupation, educational level, socioeconomic status (SES), and history of smoking and stress levels were compared to the dependent variables using a private automobile, public transportation, or motorcycle, wearing a seat belts, wearing safety helmets, and obeying the speed limit. Statistical significance was set at a P value of .05 or less. RESULTS: In general, female, better educated persons, and those with higher SES reported better driving behaviors. Better drivers also did not use tobacco or hookah. Compliance with driving safety factors was disappointing 49.8 percent always wore a seat belt, 22.4 percent always wore a safety helmet (29.4% never wore a helmet), and 49.4 percent always observed the speed limit. CONCLUSIONS: There is a need to improve driver safety compliance in Shiraz, Iran. One factor that can be addressed concerns regulation of male drivers, especially among lower SES groups.