Reproductive inequality in humans and other mammals.

To address claims of human exceptionalism, we determine where humans fit within the greater mammalian distribution of reproductive inequality. We show that humans exhibit lower reproductive skew (i.e., inequality in the number of surviving offspring) among males and smaller sex differences in reproductive skew than most other mammals, while nevertheless falling within the mammalian range. Additionally, female reproductive skew is higher in polygynous human populations than in polygynous nonhumans mammals on average. This patterning of skew can be attributed in part to the prevalence of monogamy in humans compared to the predominance of polygyny in nonhuman mammals, to the limited degree of polygyny in the human societies that practice it, and to the importance of unequally held rival resources to women's fitness. The muted reproductive inequality observed in humans appears to be linked to several unusual characteristics of our species-including high levels of cooperation among males, high dependence on unequally held rival resources, complementarities between maternal and paternal investment, as well as social and legal institutions that enforce monogamous norms.

Body norms, body image, and media in a market-integrating indigenous population in Argentina: A mixed-methods investigation.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between media, body norms, and body image among the Qom, a market-integrating indigenous population in Argentina that has historically idealized larger body sizes. METHODS: With men and women (n = 87), we measured frequency of media/technology use through a Likert-type questionnaire. Using the Stunkard Figure Rating Scale, we asked participants to select the most healthy and ideal body size for their gender, as well as their own body size. We calculated body dissatisfaction as the difference between ideal and own body size. We conducted semi-structured interviews to describe the role of media in body norms and body image. RESULTS: Media exposure was not significantly associated with perceptions of the "healthiest" or most "ideal" body sizes, nor body dissatisfaction. Men and women perceived categorically "middle-range" body sizes as both healthy and ideal, differing from a similar study in 2010, where larger bodies were favored. Interviews revealed that: media is not recognized as affecting body norms and body image, but is conceptually associated with cultural loss (Theme 1); a "dual stigma" of fatness and thinness is perpetuated by peers, family, and healthcare providers (Theme 2); and body acceptance is highly valued (Theme 3). CONCLUSION: In this context, while some body norms have changed over time, the impact of media on body norms and image may be secondary to influences from individuals' social networks, and may be occluded by norms favoring body acceptance.

Human Milk Oligosaccharide Compositions Illustrate Global Variations in Early Nutrition.

BACKGROUND: Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) are an abundant class of compounds found in human milk and have been linked to the development of the infant, and specifically the brain, immune system, and gut microbiome. OBJECTIVES: Advanced analytical methods were used to obtain relative quantitation of many structures in approximately 2000 samples from over 1000 mothers in urban, semirural, and rural sites across geographically diverse countries. METHODS: LC-MS-based analytical methods were used to profile the compounds with broad structural coverage and quantitative information. The profiles revealed their structural heterogeneity and their potential biological roles. Comparisons of HMO compositions were made between mothers of different age groups, lactation periods, infant sexes, and residing geographical locations. RESULTS: A common behavior found among all sites was a decrease in HMO abundances during lactation until approximately postnatal month 6, where they remained relatively constant. The greatest variations in structural abundances were associated with the presence of α(1,2)-fucosylated species. Genomic analyses of the mothers were not performed; instead, milk was phenotyped according to the abundances of α(1,2)-fucosylated structures. Mothers from the South American sites tended to have higher proportions of phenotypic secretors [mothers with relatively high concentrations of α(1,2)-fucosylated structures] in their populations compared to the rest of the globe, with Bolivia at ∼100% secretors, Peru at ∼97%, Brazil at ∼90%, and Argentina at ∼85%. Conversely, the cohort sampled in Africa manifested the lowest proportion of secretors (South Africa ∼ 63%, the Gambia ∼ 64%, and Malawi ∼ 75%). Furthermore, we compared total abundances of HMOs in secretors compared with nonsecretors and found that nonsecretors have lower abundances of HMOs compared to secretors, regardless of geographical location. We also observed compositional differences of the 50+ most abundant HMOs between milk types and geographical locations. CONCLUSIONS: This study represents the largest structural HMO study to date and reveals the general behavior of HMOs during lactation among different populations.

Cesarean section and breastfeeding outcomes in an Indigenous Qom community with high breastfeeding support.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Cesarean section may lead to suboptimal breastfeeding outcomes, though evidence has been mixed. Factors, such as premature birth, birth weight and maternal age may independently increase risk of cesarean and hinder breastfeeding initiation, while maternal preferences, support and sociostructural barriers may influence breastfeeding practices beyond the immediate postpartum period. METHODOLOGY: We assessed impacts of cesarean section and gestational factors on breastfeeding duration among Indigenous Qom mothers in Argentina who have strong traditional breastfeeding support. We modeled transitions from exclusive breastfeeding to complementary feeding and from complementary feeding to full weaning in a Bayesian time-to-event framework with birth mode and gestational covariates (n = 89 infants). RESULTS: Estimated median time to full weaning was 30 months. Cesarean-delivered babies were weaned an average of 5 months later adjusting for gestational age, maternal parity and infant sex. No factors were associated with time-to-complementary feeding, and time-to-complementary feeding was not associated with time-to-full weaning. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: Among Indigenous Qom mothers in Argentina, cesarean section was not associated with suboptimal breastfeeding outcomes. Although some Qom mothers do experience early breastfeeding problems, particularly following first birth, problems are not more frequent following cesarean delivery. Traditional postpartum kin and community support during prolonged postpartum periods may be instrumental in helping mothers to overcome early breastfeeding problems due to cesarean or other risk factors.

Demystifying mentorship: Tips for successfully navigating the mentor-mentee journey.

BACKGROUND: Quality mentorship is crucial for long-term success in academia and overall job satisfaction. Unfortunately, formal mentorship training is lacking, and there is little recourse for failed mentor-mentee relationships. METHODS: We performed a literature review to understand the current state of mentorship research with a focus on: (1) what mentorship is and why it is important for success; (2) establishing mentor-mentee relationships; and (3) the role of diversity, equity, and inclusion. RESULTS: From the literature review, we compiled a number of mentorship recommendations for individuals, departments, institutions, and professional associations. These recommendations focus on building a mentorship network, establishing formalized mentorship training, how to build a productive and mutually beneficial mentor-mentee relationship, and instituting a system of mentorship accountability. CONCLUSION: We hope that by centralizing this information and providing a list of resources and actionable recommendations we inspire and encourage others to make meaningful changes in their approach to mentorship to create a more kind, caring, and equitable environment in which to conduct our work.

C-reactive protein in adult Samoans: Population variation and physiological correlates.

OBJECTIVES: C-reactive protein (CRP) has been associated with adiposity and cardiometabolic disease risk in many populations but remains remarkably understudied in Pacific Islander populations. Here, we provide the first examination of correlates of CRP in adult Samoans (n = 108, ages 35-55 years) to test the hypotheses that CRP exhibits sex-dependent associations with measures of BMI, adiposity, and cardiometabolic disease risks. METHODS: We analyzed associations between measures of adiposity (total fat mass, visceral fat mass, percent total body fat), body mass index (BMI), cardiometabolic risks, behaviors, demographics, and CRP. Unadjusted analyses of CRP were undertaken using Pearson's pairwise, and Spearman's rank correlations; one-way analysis of variance and Kruskal-Wallis tests assessed variables by CRP quartiles. Adjusted analyses of CRP correlates were examined using generalized linear regression. RESULTS: Serum CRP ranged from 0.08 to 13.3 mg/L (median 1.4 mg/L) and varied significantly by sex t (108) = -2.47, p = .015. CRP was weakly to moderately associated with measures of adiposity and BMI (r and ρ ranged between 0.25 and 0.50, p < .05) and some cardiometabolic markers (including HbA1c, fasting insulin, and insulin resistance). CRP was significantly associated with percent body fat in women and men, adjusting for other variables. CONCLUSIONS: These data are among the first to demonstrate CRP correlates in a sample of adult Samoans. CRP differed by sex and was associated with BMI, adiposity, and some cardiometabolic risk markers. These data align with findings in other populations.

Associations between fecal cortisol and biparental care in a pair-living primate.

OBJECTIVES: We quantified variation in fecal cortisol across reproductive periods in Azara's owl monkeys (Aotus azarae) to examine physiological mechanisms that may facilitate biparental care. Specifically, we evaluated evidence for the explanation that owl monkeys have hormonal mechanisms to mobilize energy during periods when each sex is investing heavily in reproduction, that is, the gestation period for females and the infant care period for males. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Between 2011 and 2015, we monitored 10 groups of Azara's owl monkeys from a wild population in Formosa, Argentina and collected fecal samples from 26 adults (13 males, 13 females). Using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, we quantified fecal cortisol as a proxy for evaluating stress responses, including energetic demands, on both sexes during periods of reproduction and parental care. RESULTS: Male cortisol was lowest during periods when they were caring for young infants (<3 months) compared with periods with older infants or no infant. Female cortisol was elevated during gestation compared with other periods. Mean fecal cortisol in both males and females was lower when an infant was present compared with when females were gestating. DISCUSSION: Our results do not support the hypothesis that owl monkey males have elevated fecal cortisol during periods when they need to mobilize energy to provide intensive infant care. Our findings are also inconsistent with the Maternal Relief hypothesis. However, results from studies measuring fecal cortisol must be interpreted with care and alternative explanations, such as seasonal fluctuations in diet and thermoenergic demands, should be considered when drawing conclusions.

Comparison of two human infant urine collection methods for measuring estrone-3-glucuronide.

OBJECTIVES: Current human infant urine collection methods for the field are problematic for the researcher and potentially uncomfortable for the infant. In this study, we compared two minimally invasive methods for collecting infant urine: organic cotton balls and filter paper. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We first collected urine from infants using the clean catch method. We then used those samples to compare the performance of filter paper and cotton ball collection protocols. We analyzed the clean catch and cotton samples using commercial estrone-3-glucuronide (E1G) kits and tried two different extraction methods for the filter paper. Using a paired t-test (n = 10), we compared clean catch and cotton samples. We also compared effect sizes within and between methods. RESULTS: We were unable to extract enough urine from the filter paper to successfully assay the samples for E1G. The paired t-test revealed a statistically significant difference between the clean catch and cotton methods (t = 2.63, p-value = 0.03). However, the effect size was small (5.91 µg/ml, n = 10, 95% CI = 3.80, 8.02) and similar to or larger than the difference seen between duplicate wells for clean catch and cotton values. DISCUSSION: While this study is limited by sample size, our results indicate that filter paper is not a field-friendly method for collecting infant urine. However, we found that organic cotton balls showed similar values to the clean catch method, and we propose this method as an alternative, minimally invasive method for study of E1G in human infant urine.

Moonstruck sleep: Synchronization of human sleep with the moon cycle under field conditions.

Before the availability of artificial light, moonlight was the only source of light sufficient to stimulate nighttime activity; still, evidence for the modulation of sleep timing by lunar phases is controversial. Here, we use wrist actimetry to show a clear synchronization of nocturnal sleep timing with the lunar cycle in participants living in environments that range from a rural setting with and without access to electricity in indigenous Toba/Qom communities in Argentina to a highly urbanized postindustrial setting in the United States. Our results show that sleep starts later and is shorter on the nights before the full moon when moonlight is available during the hours following dusk. Our data suggest that moonlight likely stimulated nocturnal activity and inhibited sleep in preindustrial communities and that access to artificial light may emulate the ancestral effect of early-night moonlight.

Postpartum amenorrhea duration by sex of the newborn in two natural fertility populations.

OBJECTIVES: Postpartum amenorrhea (PA) affects the length of interbirth intervals and thus is intimately related to human life history strategies. PA duration appears to be influenced by maternal energetic status. In humans, as in other mammals, sons are costlier than daughters. Thus, we hypothesize that, in energetically constrained environments, a newborn's sex should be associated with PA duration. METHODS: We analyzed data from two natural fertility populations in which mothers have differing energy budgets: Qom women (n = 121) from a periurban village in Argentina, who have a comparatively calorically dense diet and are sedentary (prepregnancy mean BMI = 24.8 ± 4.5 kg/m2 in 1997), and agropastoral Kaqchikel Maya women (n = 88), who have a comparatively calorically restricted diet and high physical activity levels (mean BMI = 21.8 ± 3.7 kg/m2 ). We predict that (a) mothers of sons exhibit longer PA duration than mothers of daughters and (b) this association between offspring sex and PA duration is stronger in the Maya, who have smaller energy budgets. RESULTS: Maya mothers with sons exhibited estimated mean and median PA durations that were 1.34 times the estimated mean and median PA duration of mothers with daughters (p = 0.02). Among the Qom, mean, and median PA duration did not differ significantly in relation to offspring sex (p = 0.94). CONCLUSIONS: Maya mothers with sons exhibited longer PA duration than those with daughters. This phenomenon was not observed in the well-nourished Qom, possibly due to "buffering" effects from larger energy budgets. Offspring sex may influence birth spacing and maternal life history strategies in energetically constrained environments.

Food Intake and the Significance of Feeding in Qom Children of Northern Argentina.

BACKGROUND: As part of the ubiquitous nutritional transition indigenous are experiencing, the typical diet of most indigenous communities is being substituted by one with high-fat and high-energy-density foods. Domestic feeding transmits cultural factors through meaning and symbolism influential in food, preparation, and meal experiences, which in turn influence children's eating habits differently among social groups. OBJECTIVES: The aims of this study were to explore the food consumption patterns of Qom preschoolers and to describe cultural domains about the significance of feeding in this indigenous population in northern Argentina. METHODS: This cross-sectional and mixed-methods study was conducted in 2016-2017 and focused on 160 preschoolers and their mothers in the village of Namqom. It used a closed questionnaire, three 24-h recalls, and free listing techniques. RESULTS: Qom preschoolers had a high prevalence of excess weight (25%) and stunting (16%). Mothers reported only 38 food items consumed by preschoolers. Almost all of the children (96%) consumed white bread, whereas 89% consumed milk, 87.5% sweet cookies, 84.7% some sort of stew, 72% fried dough, and 63.1% soup. In addition, it was found that preschoolers consumed neither fresh and varied vegetables, nor available fruits. They did not consume fresh fish and other meats, either. Caregivers related the term "feeding" with "having to eat," which might be associated with the context of poverty in which they live. Caregivers also mentioned "eating right" to get healthy or grow up strong. CONCLUSIONS: The present study revealed a relatively elevated consumption of high-energy but nutritionally poor food, and malnutrition, which reflects the impacts of poverty. We found that the cultural domain of food is linked to survival and depletion ideas.

Access to electric light is associated with delays of the dim-light melatonin onset in a traditionally hunter-gatherer Toba/Qom community.

Key to the transition of humans from nomadic hunting-gathering groups to industrialized and highly urbanized societies was the creation of protected and artificially lit environments that extended the natural daylight hours and consolidated sleep away from nocturnal threats. These conditions isolated humans from the natural regulators of sleep and exposed them to higher levels of light during the evening, which are associated with a later sleep onset. Here, we investigated the extent to which this delayed timing of sleep is due to a delayed circadian system. We studied two communities of Toba/Qom in the northern region of Argentina, one with and the other without access to electricity. These communities have recently transitioned from a hunting-gathering subsistence to mixed subsistence systems and represent a unique model in which to study the potential effects of the access to artificial light on sleep physiology. We have previously shown that participants in the community with access to electricity had, compared to participants in the community without electricity, later sleep onsets, and shorter sleep bouts. Here, we show they also have a delayed dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO). This difference is present during the winter but not during the spring when the influence of evening artificial light is likely less relevant. Our results support the notion that the human transition into artificially lit environments had a major impact on physiological systems that regulate sleep timing, including the phase of the master circadian clock.

Itinerarios terapéuticos de madres qom en una comunidad periurbana de Formosa / Therapeutic itineraries of Qom mothers in a peri-urban community of Formosa

Introducción. Las poblaciones indígenas están atravesando profundos cambios en su estilo de vida que afectan la salud y la manera en que tratan sus enfermedades. El objetivo del estudio fue determinar los itinerarios terapéuticos que las madres qom siguen cuando perciben que sus hijos están enfermos.Población y métodos. Se trabajó en la comunidad periurbana de Namqom, en la provincia de Formosa, con un grupo de madres con niños pequeños, quienes fueron entrevistadas en sus hogares hasta lograr saturación. El estudio siguió un diseño exploratorio cualitativo, basado en un modelo conceptual de creencias de salud.Resultados. Los itinerarios terapéuticos elegidos por 16 madres qom incluyeron el uso de remedios caseros, la sanación bíblica/religiosa, la sanación por curanderos y la visita al centro de salud provincial. El itinerario para seguir, por lo general, depende de la caracterización que hace la madre de los síntomas como naturales (con origen biológico) o no naturales (relacionados con brujería). Los diferentes métodos no son necesariamente incompatibles y, muchas veces, se usan como complementarios. Tanto la confianza en la efectividad como el temor a las consecuencias juegan un papel importante en la selección del tratamiento. Estos resultados son de extrema utilidad para mejorar el diálogo entre la comunidad y el centro de salud. Resulta prioritario promover una mejor coordinación entre diferentes agentes de salud en comunidades indígenas en transición.Conclusiones. Los resultados de este estudio permitieron describir los itinerarios terapéuticos elegidos y, consecuentemente, se puso en evidencia la marcada presencia del pluralismo médico en esta comunidad

Introduction. Indigenous peoples are undergoing profound lifestyle changes that affect their health and the way they manage their diseases. The objective of this study was to determine the therapeutic itineraries followed by Qom mothers whenever they perceive their children are sick.Population and methods. The study was done in the Namqom peri-urban community, in the province of Formosa, with a group of mothers with young children interviewed at their houses until achieving saturation. The study followed an exploratory, qualitative design based on a conceptual health belief model.Results. The therapeutic itineraries selected by 16 Qom mothers included using home remedies, biblical/faith healing, healers, and visiting the provincial health center. In general, the itinerary depends on how the mother characterizes disease symptoms: natural (biological cause) or unnatural (sorcery-related). The different methods are not necessarily incompatible and, many times, are used as complementary. Both reliability on effectiveness and fear of consequences play an important role on treatment selection. These results are extremely helpful to improve the dialog between the community and the health center. It is necessary to promote an improved coordination among the different health care agents working in transitioning indigenous communities.Conclusions. The results of this study described selected therapeutic itineraries and, as a consequence, evidenced the strong presence of pluralistic medical systems in this community

Therapeutic itineraries of Qom mothers in a peri-urban community of Formosa. / Itinerarios terapéuticos de madres qom en una comunidad periurbana de Formosa.

INTRODUCTION: Indigenous peoples are undergoing profound Lifestyle changes that affect their health and the way they manage their diseases. The objective of this study was to determine the therapeutic itineraries followed by Qom mothers whenever they perceive their children are sick. POPULATION AND METHODS: The study was done in the Namqom peri-urban community, in the province of Formosa, with a group of mothers with young children interviewed at their houses until achieving saturation. The study followed an exploratory, qualitative design based on a conceptual health belief model. RESULTS: The therapeutic itineraries selected by 16 Qom mothers included using home remedies, biblical/faith healing, healers, and visiting the provincial health center. In general, the itinerary depends on how the mother characterizes disease symptoms: natural (biological cause) or unnatural (sorcery-related). The different methods are not necessarily incompatible and, many times, are used as complementary. Both reliability on effectiveness and fear of consequences play an important role on treatment selection. These results are extremely helpful to improve the dialog between the community and the health center. It is necessary to promote an improved coordination among the different health care agents working in transitioning indigenous communities. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study described selected therapeutic itineraries and, as a consequence, evidenced the strong presence of pluralistic medical systems in this community.

Introducción. Las poblaciones indígenas están atravesando profundos cambios en su estilo de vida que afectan la salud y la manera en que tratan sus enfermedades. El objetivo del estudio fue determinar los itinerarios terapéuticos que las madres qom siguen cuando perciben que sus hijos están enfermos. Población y métodos. Se trabajó en la comunidad periurbana de Namqom, en la provincia de Formosa, con un grupo de madres con niños pequeños, quienes fueron entrevistadas en sus hogares hasta lograr saturación. El estudio siguió un diseño exploratorio cualitativo, basado en un modelo conceptual de creencias de salud. Resultados. Los itinerarios terapéuticos elegidos por 16 madres qom incluyeron el uso de remedios caseros, la sanaciónbíblica/religiosa, la sanación por curanderos y la visita al centro de salud provincial. El itinerario para seguir, por lo general, depende de la caracterización que hace la madre de los síntomas como naturales (con origen biológico) o no naturales (relacionados con brujería). Los diferentes métodos no son necesariamente incompatibles y, muchas veces, se usan como complementarios. Tanto la confianza en la efectividad como el temor a las consecuencias juegan un papel importante en la selección del tratamiento. Estos resultados son de extrema utilidad para mejorar el diálogo entre la comunidad y el centro de salud. Resulta prioritario promover una mejor coordinación entre diferentes agentes de salud en comunidades indígenas en transición. Conclusiones. Los resultados de este estudio permitieron describir los itinerarios terapéuticos elegidos y, consecuentemente, se puso en evidencia la marcada presencia del pluralismo médico en esta comunidad.

Perceptions of the healthiest body in a market-integrating indigenous population in Argentina: Fat idealization and gendered generational differences.

OBJECTIVES: Market integration seems to induce gender-specific generational change in health-related perceptions of body size. We predicted that among the Qom of Argentina, younger women would perceive comparatively thinner bodies as healthiest, demonstrating thin-idealizing body norms, and older women would retain culturally rooted perceptions of heavier bodies as healthiest. As traditional and globalized body size ideals are different for men, we predicted that men would perceive normal bodies as healthiest and would not exhibit generational differences. METHODS: We asked Qom adults (n = 273) residing in Namqom, Argentina to choose the healthiest body size from the Stunkard Figure Rating Scale (FRS). We performed multiple linear regression with age, gender, and body mass index (BMI) predicting healthy-body perception score. RESULTS: A majority of women chose overweight bodies as healthiest. As predicted, older women preferred heavier bodies compared to their younger peers; this generational effect was stronger among women clinically defined as underweight (BMI ≤19.99 kg/m2 ), and "normal" weight (20.00 kg/m2 ≤ BMI ≤24.99 kg/m2 ), as compared to women clinically defined as overweight (25.00 kg/m2 ≤ BMI ≤29.99 kg/m2 ) or obese (≥30.00 kg/m2 ). Men exhibited no generational effects and largely perceived bodies corresponding to a "normal" BMI as healthiest. CONCLUSIONS: Among Qom women, there is evidence for the adoption of the idealization of thinness as healthy alongside traditional perceptions that fat bodies are healthy.

Incipient Neighborhood and Socioeconomic Stratification Associated to Nutritional Status in Indigenous Qom Preschoolers from Formosa, Argentina.

Indigenous populations in Latin America are among the most socially vulnerable groups and their children often suffer severe deprivation in terms of access to proper nutrition, water, and shelter. This study describes the nutritional status of Qom preschoolers in general, and by neighborhood area and family's socioeconomic characteristics in a peri-urban village of Formosa, Argentina. Across-sectional study was carried out between January and December 2016, with 160 Qom children between 2 and 5 years of age. Interviews and anthropometric measures were conducted at the children's homes. Nutritional status was determined by body mass index. The prevalence of excess weight (overweight + obesity) and of stunting were associated with neighborhood area and socioeconomic level. The overall prevalence of stunting was 15.6% and it was found to be higher (25.8%) in areas of relatively lower access to material resources. The overall prevalence of excess weight reached 25%; however, neighborhood areas with greater access to material resources had a significantly higher prevalence of children with excess weight (41.2%). Despite the entire community living under the line of poverty, we found differences in nutritional status by neighborhood areas, suggesting an incipient social stratification and a deepening of inequalities in access to resources.

The developmental origins of risk and time preferences across diverse societies.

Risk and time preferences have often been viewed as reflecting inherent traits such as impatience and self-control. Here, we offer an alternative perspective, arguing that they are flexible and environmentally informed. In Study 1, we investigated risk and time preferences among children in the United States, India, and Argentina, as well as forager-horticulturalist Shuar children in Amazonian Ecuador. We find striking cross-cultural differences in behavior: children in India, the United States, and Argentina are more risk-seeking and future-oriented, whereas Shuar children are more risk-averse and exhibit more heterogeneous time preferences, on average preferring more today choices. To explore 1 of the socioecological forces that may be shaping these preferences, in Study 2, we compared the behavior of more and less market-integrated Shuar children, finding that those in market-integrated regions are more future-oriented and risk-seeking. These findings indicate that cross-cultural differences in risk and time preferences can be traced into childhood and may be influenced by the local environment. More broadly, our results contribute to a growing understanding of plasticity and variation in the development of behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Measuring subjective social status in children of diverse societies.

Subjective Social Status (SSS) is a robust predictor of psychological and physiological outcomes, frequently measured as self-reported placement on the MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status. Despite its importance, however, there are still open questions regarding how early into ontogeny SSS can be measured, and how well SSS measures can be extended to non-Western and small-scale populations. Here, we investigate the internal consistency of responses to the MacArthur ladder across four cultures by comparing responses to more explicit social comparison questions. We conduct these comparisons among children and adolescents, ages 4 to 18, in India, the United States, and Argentina, in addition to those in two indigenous communities of the Ecuadorean Amazon marked by differing degrees of market integration (total N = 363). We find that responses are consistent in all populations, except for the more remote forager-horticulturalist Ecuadorian community. We also find that, consistent with findings among American adolescents, SSS declines with age. We then assess the test-retest reliability of the MacArthur Scale across two time-points: a subset of Indian participants (N = 43) within one week, and a larger, second sample of Indian participants after one year (N = 665). We find that responses are highly correlated within one week (ρ = 0.47), and moderately correlated after one year (ρ = 0.32). These results suggest that responses to the MacArthur ladder are internally consistent and reliable among children across a range of diverse populations, though care must be taken in utilizing these measures among children of non-industrial, small-scale societies.

Systematic Review of Chronic Discrimination and Changes in Biology During Pregnancy Among African American Women.

Profound racial health disparities in maternal and infant health exist in the USA. Discrimination based on race may contribute to these disparities, but the biological pathways through which racial discrimination acts on health are not fully known. Even less is known about these pathways during development. Examining how racial discrimination becomes biology is paramount because it may shed light on how and when such social forces result in lasting biological consequences for health and wellbeing. To begin exploring this issue, we performed a systematic review of the relationships between experiences of chronic racial discrimination and relevant biomarkers measured during pregnancy among African American women. The literature search included studies published prior to August 2018 in the MEDLINE, Embase, and PsycINFO databases, and 11 studies met our inclusion criteria. We evaluated the articles based on the biological system that the authors investigated, which included the immune, neuroendocrine, and cardiovascular systems. We found that the current literature provides preliminary evidence that experiences of chronic racial discrimination are associated with changes in maternal biology during pregnancy. However, the literature was limited in both quantity and quality. We found only 11 studies that addressed this subject, four of which only provided indirect evidence, and many studies had small sample sizes. Future work in this area should develop more informative methods that consider the interaction between interpersonal and structural racial discrimination, individual variation, and sociocultural factors. We conclude researchers should continue to work in this area and focus on developing more effective study designs and larger sample sizes.