Calibrations, Validations, and Checks of a Dual 23 nm and 10 nm Diffusion Charger-Based Portable Emissions Measurement System (PEMS).

The upcoming Euro 7 vehicle exhaust emissions regulation includes particle number (PN) limits for all vehicles, not only those with direct fuel injection. It also sets the lower detection particle size of the PN methodology to 10 nm from 23 nm. Recently, a commercial diffusion charger-based PEMS added the possibility of switching the lower size between 23 nm and 10 nm. In this study, we assessed the dual PEMS in the calibration laboratory using diffusion flame soot or spark discharge graphite particles following the regulated procedures. Furthermore, we compared the dual PEMS with a laboratory grade system (LABS) using soot, graphite, and vehicle exhaust particles. To put the results into perspective, we added comparisons (validations) of two additional 23 nm PEMSs with LABSs over a three-year period. The results showed that the differences of the 23 nm PEMSs remained the same (around 35% underestimation) over the years and were similar to the dual PEMS. This difference is still well within the permissible tolerance from the regulation (50%). We argued that the reason is the calibration material used by the manufacturer (spark discharge graphite). We demonstrated that calibrating with combustion soot could reduce the differences. The 10 nm PEMS gave similar results but with much smaller differences, indicating that the calibration material is of less importance for the Euro 7 step. The results showed that the measurement uncertainty has not increased but rather decreased for the specific PEMS switching from 23 nm to 10 nm.

Redox-activity and in vitro effects of regional atmospheric aerosol pollution: Seasonal differences and correlation between oxidative potential and in vitro toxicity of PM1.

Particulate Matter (PM) is a complex and heterogeneous mixture of atmospheric particles recognized as a threat to human health. Oxidative Potential (OP) measurement is a promising and integrative method for estimating PM-induced health impacts since it is recognized as more closely associated with adverse health effects than ordinarily used PM mass concentrations. OP measurements could be introduced in the air quality monitoring, along with the parameters currently evaluated. PM deposition in the lungs induces oxidative stress, inflammation, and DNA damage. The study aimed to compare the OP measurements with toxicological effects on BEAS-2B and THP-1 cells of winter and summer PM1 collected in the Po Valley (Italy) during 2021. PM1 was extracted in deionized water by mechanical agitation and tested for OP and, in parallel, used to treat cells. Cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, oxidative stress, and inflammatory responses were assessed by MTT test, DCFH-DA assay, micronucleus, γ-H2AX, comet assay modified with endonucleases, ELISA, and Real-Time PCR. The evaluation of OP was performed by applying three different assays: dithiothreitol (OPDTT), ascorbic acid (OPAA), and 2',7'-dichlorofluorescein (OPDCFH), in addition, the reducing potential was also analysed (RPDPPH). Seasonal differences were detected in all the parameters investigated. The amount of DNA damage detected with the Comet assay and ROS formation highlights the presence of oxidative damage both in winter and in summer samples, while DNA damage (micronucleus) and genes regulation were mainly detected in winter samples. A positive correlation with OPDCFH (Spearman's analysis, p < 0.05) was detected for IL-8 secretion and γ-H2AX. These results provide a biological support to the implementation in air quality monitoring of OP measurements as a useful proxy to estimate PM-induced cellular toxicological responses. In addition, these results provide new insights for the assessment of the ability of secondary aerosol in the background atmosphere to induce oxidative stress and health effects.

Pan-cancer proteomic map of 949 human cell lines.

The proteome provides unique insights into disease biology beyond the genome and transcriptome. A lack of large proteomic datasets has restricted the identification of new cancer biomarkers. Here, proteomes of 949 cancer cell lines across 28 tissue types are analyzed by mass spectrometry. Deploying a workflow to quantify 8,498 proteins, these data capture evidence of cell-type and post-transcriptional modifications. Integrating multi-omics, drug response, and CRISPR-Cas9 gene essentiality screens with a deep learning-based pipeline reveals thousands of protein biomarkers of cancer vulnerabilities that are not significant at the transcript level. The power of the proteome to predict drug response is very similar to that of the transcriptome. Further, random downsampling to only 1,500 proteins has limited impact on predictive power, consistent with protein networks being highly connected and co-regulated. This pan-cancer proteomic map (ProCan-DepMapSanger) is a comprehensive resource available at https://cellmodelpassports.sanger.ac.uk.

Optimization of the monocyte activation test for evaluating pyrogenicity of tick-borne encephalitis virus vaccine

Pyrogen content is a key quality feature that must be checked in all injectable products, including vaccines. Four tests are currently available in the European Pharmacopoeia to monitor pyrogen/endotoxin presence: the rabbit pyrogen test (RPT), the bacterial endotoxin test, the recombinant factor C test, and the monocyte activation test (MAT). Here, we explored the possibility to replace the RPT with the MAT in the quality control of a vaccine against tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV). The testing was carried out using cryopreserved peripheral blood mononuclear cells as cell source. IL-6 release was selected as readout for the detection of both endotoxin and non-endotoxin contaminants. MAT applicability for pyrogen testing of the TBEV vaccine was assessed through preparatory tests and resulted in the establishment of a very sensitive assay (limit of detection (LOD) = 0.04 EU/mL; sensitivity = 0.1 EU/mL). Both quantitative Method A and semiquantitative Method B were used for data analysis. Our studies revealed that for a vaccine without intrinsic pyrogenicity, such as that against TBEV, sensitivity (the lowest endotoxin value of the standard curve) should be used instead of LOD to define a stable maximum valid dilution of the product. In conclusion, we describe the challenges of MAT implementation for anti-TBEV vaccine following the current Ph. Eur. chapter 2.6.30 and propose a re-evaluation of the validity criteria of Methods A and B in order to set a semi-quantitative or limit test suitable for those products for which a reference lot comparison analysis is not applicable or favorable.

Monocyte-activation test to reliably measure the pyrogenic content of a vaccine: An in vitro pyrogen test to overcome in vivo limitations.

Pyrogen content is one of the critical quality attributes impacting the safety of a product, and there is an increasing need for assays that can reliably measure this attribute in vaccines. The Limulus amebocyte lysate (LAL) assay and the rabbit pyrogen test (RPT) are the canonical animal-based pyrogen tests currently used to release vaccines; however, there are several drawbacks associated with these tests when applied to Bexsero, intrinsically pyrogenic product, containing a meningococcal Outer Membrane Vesicle component. While the RPT, as applied to Bexsero at its given dilution, ensures safe vaccine, it is highly variable and prone to false positive results. On the other hand, the LAL assay although quantitative, can detect only endotoxin pyrogens and is not sufficient for monitoring the safety of Bexsero, which contains both LPS and non-endotoxin pyrogens. Being aware of these limitations of the RPT and LAL when applied to Bexsero, the Monocyte Activation Test (MAT) which is sensitive to both endotoxin and non-endotoxin based pyrogens has been developed as an alternative pyrogen test. Here, the development and the validation of a MAT assay adapted from the European pharmacopoeia for Bexsero, is described. The MAT assay is then used for monitoring the safety and consistency of Bexsero vaccines at release, providing great advantages in terms of reduced variability with respect to RPT, reduction of animal use, in line with the 3Rs principle concerning the protection of animals and faster time to market. In addition the correlation of the MAT to the RPT has been demonstrated supporting the replacement of the in vivo method and the potential application of the assay to other intrinsically pyrogenic vaccines.

Rational design of small molecules as vaccine adjuvants.

Adjuvants increase vaccine potency largely by activating innate immunity and promoting inflammation. Limiting the side effects of this inflammation is a major hurdle for adjuvant use in vaccines for humans. It has been difficult to improve on adjuvant safety because of a poor understanding of adjuvant mechanism and the empirical nature of adjuvant discovery and development historically. We describe new principles for the rational optimization of small-molecule immune potentiators (SMIPs) targeting Toll-like receptor 7 as adjuvants with a predicted increase in their therapeutic indices. Unlike traditional drugs, SMIP-based adjuvants need to have limited bioavailability and remain localized for optimal efficacy. These features also lead to temporally and spatially restricted inflammation that should decrease side effects. Through medicinal and formulation chemistry and extensive immunopharmacology, we show that in vivo potency can be increased with little to no systemic exposure, localized innate immune activation and short in vivo residence times of SMIP-based adjuvants. This work provides a systematic and generalizable approach to engineering small molecules for use as vaccine adjuvants.

Modulation of endotoxicity of Shigella generalized modules for membrane antigens (GMMA) by genetic lipid A modifications: relative activation of TLR4 and TLR2 pathways in different mutants.

Outer membrane particles from Gram-negative bacteria are attractive vaccine candidates as they present surface antigens in their natural context. We previously developed a high yield production process for genetically derived particles, called generalized modules for membrane antigens (GMMA), from Shigella. As GMMA are derived from the outer membrane, they contain immunostimulatory components, especially lipopolysaccharide (LPS). We examined ways of reducing their reactogenicity by modifying lipid A, the endotoxic part of LPS, through deletion of late acyltransferase genes, msbB or htrB, in GMMA-producing Shigella sonnei and Shigella flexneri strains. GMMA with resulting penta-acylated lipid A from the msbB mutants showed a 600-fold reduced ability, and GMMA from the S. sonnei ΔhtrB mutant showed a 60,000-fold reduced ability compared with GMMA with wild-type lipid A to stimulate human Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) in a reporter cell line. In human peripheral blood mononuclear cells, GMMA with penta-acylated lipid A showed a marked reduction in induction of inflammatory cytokines (S. sonnei ΔhtrB, 800-fold; ΔmsbB mutants, 300-fold). We found that the residual activity of these GMMA is largely due to non-lipid A-related TLR2 activation. In contrast, in the S. flexneri ΔhtrB mutant, a compensatory lipid A palmitoleoylation resulted in GMMA with hexa-acylated lipid A with ∼10-fold higher activity to stimulate peripheral blood mononuclear cells than GMMA with penta-acylated lipid A, mostly due to retained TLR4 activity. Thus, for use as vaccines, GMMA will likely require lipid A penta-acylation. The results identify the relative contributions of TLR4 and TLR2 activation by GMMA, which need to be taken into consideration for GMMA vaccine development.

Manipulation of in vivo iron levels can alter resistance to oxidative stress without affecting ageing in the nematode C. elegans.

Iron-catalyzed generation of free radicals leads to molecular damage in vivo, and has been proposed to contribute to organismal ageing. Here we investigate the role of free iron in ageing in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Media supplementation with Fe(III) increased free iron levels in vivo, as detected by continuous-wave electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy and elevated expression of the iron-sensitive reporter transgene pftn-1::gfp. Increased free iron levels caused elevated levels of protein oxidation and hypersensitivity to tert-butyl hydroperoxide (t-BOOH) given 9 mM Fe(III) or greater, but 15 mM Fe(III) or greater was required to reduce lifespan. Treatment with either an iron chelator (deferoxamine) or over-expression of ftn-1, encoding the iron sequestering protein ferritin, increased resistance to t-BOOH and, in the latter case, reduced protein oxidation, but did not increase lifespan. Expression of ftn-1 is greatly increased in long-lived daf-2 insulin/IGF-1 receptor mutants. In this context, deletion of ftn-1 decreased t-BOOH resistance, but enhanced both daf-2 mutant longevity and constitutive dauer larva formation, suggesting an effect of ferritin on signaling. These results show that high levels of iron can increase molecular damage and reduce lifespan, but overall suggest that iron levels within the normal physiological range do not promote ageing in C. elegans.

What's new in the treatment of neonatal shock.

Shock is a clinical disorder that challenges caregivers in the neonatal intensive care unit. The predominant cause of shock in neonates is sepsis. This article provides an overview of the current treatment of septic shock with particular emphasis on newer vasoactive drugs (milrinone, levosimendan and vasopressin) to support cardiovascular dysfunction.

Absence of effects of Sir2 overexpression on lifespan in C. elegans and Drosophila.

Overexpression of sirtuins (NAD(+)-dependent protein deacetylases) has been reported to increase lifespan in budding yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila melanogaster. Studies of the effects of genes on ageing are vulnerable to confounding effects of genetic background. Here we re-examined the reported effects of sirtuin overexpression on ageing and found that standardization of genetic background and the use of appropriate controls abolished the apparent effects in both C. elegans and Drosophila. In C. elegans, outcrossing of a line with high-level sir-2.1 overexpression abrogated the longevity increase, but did not abrogate sir-2.1 overexpression. Instead, longevity co-segregated with a second-site mutation affecting sensory neurons. Outcrossing of a line with low-copy-number sir-2.1 overexpression also abrogated longevity. A Drosophila strain with ubiquitous overexpression of dSir2 using the UAS-GAL4 system was long-lived relative to wild-type controls, as previously reported, but was not long-lived relative to the appropriate transgenic controls, and nor was a new line with stronger overexpression of dSir2. These findings underscore the importance of controlling for genetic background and for the mutagenic effects of transgene insertions in studies of genetic effects on lifespan. The life-extending effect of dietary restriction on ageing in Drosophila has also been reported to be dSir2 dependent. We found that dietary restriction increased fly lifespan independently of dSir2. Our findings do not rule out a role for sirtuins in determination of metazoan lifespan, but they do cast doubt on the robustness of the previously reported effects of sirtuins on lifespan in C. elegans and Drosophila.

Adjuvanticity of the oil-in-water emulsion MF59 is independent of Nlrp3 inflammasome but requires the adaptor protein MyD88.

Oil-in-water emulsions have been successfully used to increase the efficacy, immunogenicity, and cross-protection of human vaccines; however, their mechanism of action is still largely unknown. Nlrp3 inflammasome has been previously associated to the activity of alum, another adjuvant broadly used in human vaccines, and MyD88 adaptor protein is required for the adjuvanticity of most Toll-like receptor agonists. We compared the contribution of Nlrp3 and MyD88 to the adjuvanticity of alum, the oil-in-water emulsion MF59, and complete Freund's adjuvant in mice using a three-component vaccine against serogroup B Neisseria meningitidis (rMenB). Although the basal antibody responses to the nonadjuvanted rMenB vaccine were largely dependent on Nlrp3, the high-level antibody responses induced by alum, MF59, or complete Freund's adjuvant did not require Nlrp3. Surprisingly, we found that MF59 requires MyD88 to enhance bactericidal antibody responses to the rMenB vaccine. Because MF59 did not activate any of the Toll-like receptors in vitro, we propose that MF59 requires MyD88 for a Toll-like receptor-independent signaling pathway.

Neutrophil unsaturated fatty acid release by GM-CSF is impaired in cystic fibrosis.

Dysregulated inflammation in cystic fibrosis (CF) is attributed to an altered production of inflammatory mediators derived from polyunsaturated lipids. In comparison to the arachidonic acid (AA) cascade, little is known about the modulation of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) membrane release. We compared data on neutrophil DHA- and AA- release from both control (CT) and patients with CF using [3H]AA or [14C]DHA as a markers for, respectively, AA and DHA- release. Granulocyte-macrophage-colony stimulating factor stimulated DHA release from CT, but not CF, neutrophils. Comparison showed that both [14C]DHA and [3H]AA liberated after stimulation was higher in CT than in CF neutrophils. Since bioactive mediators derived from DHA are resolving factors and those derived from AA are both pro- and anti- inflammatory, these results suggest that CF is associated with a reduction of the release of PUFA-precursors of lipooxygenated resolving mediators. This leads to the hypothesis that defects in the resolving factors production could contribute to the inflammatory dysregulated processes in CF. Furthermore, the methodology used may help to improve knowledge on the regulation and resolution of inflammation.

Src kinases are required for a balanced production of IL-12/IL-23 in human dendritic cells activated by Toll-like receptor agonists.

BACKGROUND: Pathogen recognition by dendritic cells (DC) is crucial for the initiation of both innate and adaptive immune responses. Activation of Toll-like Receptors (TLRs) by microbial molecular patterns leads to the maturation of DC, which present the antigen and activate T cells in secondary lymphoid tissues. Cytokine production by DC is critical for shaping the adaptive immune response by regulating T helper cell differentiation. It was previously shown by our group that Src kinases play a key role in cytokines production during TLR4 activation in human DC. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: In this work we investigated the role of Src kinases during different TLRs triggering in human monocyte-derived DC (MoDC). We found that Src family kinases are important for a balanced production of inflammatory cytokines by human MoDC upon stimulation of TLR3 and 8 with their respective agonists. Disruption of this equilibrium through pharmacological inhibition of Src kinases alters the DC maturation pattern. In particular, while expression of IL-12 and other inflammatory cytokines depend on Src kinases, the induction of IL-23 and co-stimulatory molecules do not. Accordingly, DC treated with Src inhibitors are not compromised in their ability to induce CD4 T cell proliferation and to promote the Th17 subset survival but are less efficient in inducing Th1 differentiation. CONCLUSIONS: We suggest that the pharmacological modulation of DC maturation has the potential to shape the quality of the adaptive immune response and could be exploited for the treatment of inflammation-related diseases.

Neutrophil generation of inflammatory precursors is not modulated by docosahexaenoic acid.

OBJECTIVE AND DESIGN: It is believed that correction of membrane fatty acid deficiency in cystic fibrosis (CF) downregulates the synthesis of proinflammatory mediators. We tested the hypothesis that an increase of the proportion of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in the membrane in vitro changes the neutrophil response to Pseudomonas aeruginosa lipopolysaccharide (LPS). RESULTS: Treatment with DHA increased the secretion of interleukin(IL)-1|*alpha*| by CF neutrophils, but the secretion of other cytokines, CD11b expression, and arachidonic acid (AA) release were not affected either in CF or control (CT) neutrophils. Both with and without DHA, only one out of eight CF neutrophils responded to LPS with an increase of released AA, while five out of seven CT cells released more AA (CF vs. CT P < 0.05 by Fisher test). CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate that in neutrophils the beneficial effects of DHA on immune response are not directly related to the generation of proinflammatory precursors, and suggest that in CF the lower neutrophil AA generation in response to activation could cause insufficient production of lipid mediators involved in the resolution of lung inflammation.

Human plasmacytoid dendritic cells are unresponsive to bacterial stimulation and require a novel type of cooperation with myeloid dendritic cells for maturation.

Dendritic cell (DC) populations play unique and essential roles in the detection of pathogens, but information on how different DC types work together is limited. In this study, 2 major DC populations of human blood, myeloid (mDCs) and plasmacytoid (pDCs), were cultured alone or together in the presence of pathogens or their products. We show that pDCs do not respond to whole bacteria when cultured alone, but mature in the presence of mDCs. Using purified stimuli, we dissect this cross-talk and demonstrate that mDCs and pDCs activate each other in response to specific induction of only one of the cell types. When stimuli for one or both populations are limited, they synergize to reach optimal activation. The cross-talk is limited to enhanced antigen presentation by the nonresponsive population with no detectable changes in the quantity and range of cytokines produced. We propose that each population can be a follower or leader in immune responses against pathogen infections, depending on their ability to respond to infectious agents. In addition, our results indicate that pDCs play a secondary role to induce immunity against human bacterial infections, which has implications for more efficient targeting of DC populations with improved vaccines and therapeutics.

Urokinase plasminogen activator and TGF-beta production in immunosuppressed patients with and without P. Jiroveci infection.

Macrophages play a pivotal role in a host's defence against pulmonary infections. Macrophage functions are impaired in immunosuppressed (IS) patients, regardless of whether they are HIV-positive (HIV+) or -negative (HIV-). Several studies have indicated that urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA) and transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta) are important factors in a host's defence against pulmonary pathogens. We measured uPA and TGF-beta activity in unstimulated peripheral blood monocytes (PBM) of both HIV-infected and non-infected IS patients with or without Pneumocystis jiroveci (formerly carinii) pneumonia (PCP). As previously found in alveolar macrophages (AMs), the majority of uPA activity was found in cell lysates. The highest values of uPA activity were found in control subjects. All the patients displayed a decreased production of uPA, irrespective of HIV infection. Similarly, active TGF-beta was higher in control subjects than in HIV+ and IS patients. The presence of P. jiroveci infection further lowered uPA and TGF-beta activity. Decreased TGF-beta activation might be a consequence of lower uPA production, which may, in turn, influence virus replication, since it has been demonstrated that TGF-beta can suppress human HIV expression in monocytes/macrophages. Further studies are warranted to elucidate whether the decrease in uPA and TGF-beta activity impairs a host's defence against P. jiroveci infection.