[Policies of zoonosis in Colombia: from health Code to environmental health]. / Políticas de zoonosis en Colombia: del Código Sanitario a la salud ambiental.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze public policies of zoonosis in Colombia, in the period of 1975 to 2014, as State responses. METHODOLOGY: Used the policy cycle analysis approach or sequential approach. This analysis was carried out by means of the following aspects: content, processes, actors, and vertical and horizontal relationships between policies. RESULTS: Zoonosis policies were very different in scope, contents and forms, and results are part of a history of successes and failures, who have only managed to partially transform the general and regional overview of the zoonosis. CONCLUSIONS: The implementation of decisions that have operational scope is relatively slow and scattered in areas of zoonosis in the country. A major achievement has been the shift from policies that are individualized to the great policy of health environmental-PISA.

OBJETIVO: Analizar las políticas públicas de zoonosis en Colombia, en el período de 1975 a 2014, como respuestas estatales. METODOLOGÍA: Se utilizó el enfoque de análisis de ciclo de política o enfoque secuencial. Este análisis se llevó a cabo por medio de los siguientes aspectos: contenidos, procesos, actores y relaciones verticales y horizontales entre las políticas. RESULTADOS: Las políticas de zoonosis son muy diversas en su alcance, contenidos y formas, y hacen parte de una historia de éxitos y fracasos, que sólo han logrado transformar de manera parcial el panorama general y regional de las zoonosis. CONCLUSIONES: La implementación de las decisiones que tienen alcance operacional es relativamente lenta y dispersa en las zonas de zoonosis del país. Ha sido un logro importante el viraje desde las políticas individualizadas a la gran política de salud ambiental-PISA.

Políticas de zoonosis en Colombia: del Código Sanitario a la salud ambiental / Policies of zoonosis in Colombia: from health Code to environmental health

RESUMEN Objetivo Analizar las políticas públicas de zoonosis en Colombia, en el período de 1975 a 2014, como respuestas estatales. Metodología Se utilizó el enfoque de análisis de ciclo de política o enfoque secuencial. Este análisis se llevó a cabo por medio de los siguientes aspectos: contenidos, procesos, actores y relaciones verticales y horizontales entre las políticas. Resultados Las políticas de zoonosis son muy diversas en su alcance, contenidos y formas, y hacen parte de una historia de éxitos y fracasos, que sólo han logrado transformar de manera parcial el panorama general y regional de las zoonosis. Conclusiones La implementación de las decisiones que tienen alcance operacional es relativamente lenta y dispersa en las zonas de zoonosis del país. Ha sido un logro importante el viraje desde las políticas individualizadas a la gran política de salud ambiental-PISA.(AU)

ABSTRACT Objective To analyze public policies of zoonosis in Colombia, in the period of 1975 to 2014, as State responses. Methodology Used the policy cycle analysis approach or sequential approach. This analysis was carried out by means of the following aspects: content, processes, actors, and vertical and horizontal relationships between policies. Results Zoonosis policies were very different in scope, contents and forms, and results are part of a history of successes and failures, who have only managed to partially transform the general and regional overview of the zoonosis. Conclusions The implementation of decisions that have operational scope is relatively slow and scattered in areas of zoonosis in the country. A major achievement has been the shift from policies that are individualized to the great policy of health environmental-PISA.(AU)

Políticas públicas de zoonosis en Colombia, 1975-2014: un abordaje desde la ciencia política y la salud pública / Public policies of zoonoses in Colombia, 1975-2014: an approach from Political Science and Public Health

RESUMEN Objetivo Analizar las políticas públicas de zoonosis en Colombia, en términos de capacidad de respuesta, decisiones, procesos y resultados, aproximándose a los impactos de las mismas, en el período de 1975 a 2014. Métodos Se realizó un estudio de análisis y evaluación de políticas públicas, con un diseño mixto. Se seleccionaron algunas zoonosis con base en su importancia en salud pública, epidemiología, ubicación en la política y disponibilidad de información consecutiva. Se utilizaron fuentes secundarias de tipo documental y fuentes primarias por medio de una encuesta comentada. Se construyó un marco interpretativo, histórico y estructural, desde el punto de vista económico, epidemiológico y político. Para el análisis de las políticas se utilizó el enfoque secuencial y, de manera complementaria, el enfoque de desarrollo institucional. Se llevó a cabo un análisis de tendencias de las zoonosis seleccionadas. Resultados El marco interpretativo abordó el contexto macro y los procesos clave en dos períodos: 1975-1990 y 1990-2014. El análisis de las políticas públicas en zoonosis se adelantó según su nivel de decisión y relaciones verticales y horizontales entre las mismas. Se obtuvo un análisis de tendencias de las zoonosis en el largo plazo, aproximándose a una valoración del impacto de las políticas. Conclusiones La diversificación y profundización instrumental de las políticas sugieren que las mismas se han acercado a la comprensión y capacidad de manejo de las problemáticas complejas de las zoonosis. Sin embargo, el análisis de tendencias sugiere que el impacto de las políticas públicas en zoonosis sigue siendo limitado.(AU)

ABSTRACT Objective To analyze public policies regarding zoonoses in Colombia, in terms of responsiveness, decision-making, processes and results, approaching their impact in the period between 1975 and 2014. Methods An analysis and assessment of public policies were carried out using a mixed design. Some zoonoses were selected based on their importance for public health, epidemiology, policy and availability of consecutive information. Secondary documentary sources and primary sources were used through an annotated survey. An interpretive, historical and structural framework was built from an economic, epidemiological and political point of view. For policy analysis, the sequential approach was used and, in a complementary manner, the institutional development approach. A trend analysis of selected zoonoses was carried out. Results The interpretive framework addressed the macro context and the key processes in two periods: 1975-1990 and 1990-2014. The analysis of public policies in zoonoses was conducted according to their decision level and the vertical and horizontal relationships between them. A trend analysis of zoonoses in the long term, as well as an assessment of the impact of the policies, was obtained. Conclusions Policy diversification and instrumental depth suggest that they have approached the understanding and management capacity of the complex problems of zoonoses. However, the trend analysis suggests that the impact of public policies on zoonoses is still limited.(AU)

Zika Virus: What Have We Learnt Since the Start of the Recent Epidemic?

Zika is a viral disease transmitted mainly by mosquitoes of the genus Aedes. In recent years, it has expanded geographically, changing from an endemic mosquito-borne disease across equatorial Asia and Africa, to an epidemic disease causing large outbreaks in several areas of the world. With the recent Zika virus (ZIKV) outbreaks in the Americas, the disease has become a focus of attention of public health agencies and of the international research community, especially due to an association with neurological disorders in adults and to the severe neurological and ophthalmological abnormalities found in fetuses and newborns of mothers exposed to ZIKV during pregnancy. A large number of studies have been published in the last 3 years, revealing the structure of the virus, how it is transmitted and how it affects human cells. Many different animal models have been developed, which recapitulate several features of ZIKV disease and its neurological consequences. Moreover, several vaccine candidates are now in active preclinical development, and three of them have already entered phase I clinical trials. Likewise, many different compounds targeting viral and cellular components are being tested in in vitro and in experimental animal models. This review aims to discuss the current state of this rapidly growing literature from a multidisciplinary perspective, as well as to present an overview of the public health response to Zika and of the perspectives for the prevention and treatment of this disease.

[Public policies of zoonoses in Colombia, 1975-2014. An approach from Political Science and Public Health]. / Políticas públicas de zoonosis en Colombia, 1975-2014. Un abordaje desde la ciencia política y la salud pública.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze public policies regarding zoonoses in Colombia, in terms of responsiveness, decision-making, processes and results, approaching their impact in the period between 1975 and 2014. METHODS: An analysis and assessment of public policies were carried out using a mixed design. Some zoonoses were selected based on their importance for public health, epidemiology, policy and availability of consecutive information. Secondary documentary sources and primary sources were used through an annotated survey. An interpretive, historical and structural framework was built from an economic, epidemiological and political point of view. For policy analysis, the sequential approach was used and, in a complementary manner, the institutional development approach. A trend analysis of selected zoonoses was carried out. RESULTS: The interpretive framework addressed the macro context and the key processes in two periods: 1975-1990 and 1990-2014. The analysis of public policies in zoonoses was conducted according to their decision level and the vertical and horizontal relationships between them. A trend analysis of zoonoses in the long term, as well as an assessment of the impact of the policies, was obtained. CONCLUSIONS: Policy diversification and instrumental depth suggest that they have approached the understanding and management capacity of the complex problems of zoonoses. However, the trend analysis suggests that the impact of public policies on zoonoses is still limited.

OBJETIVO: Analizar las políticas públicas de zoonosis en Colombia, en términos de capacidad de respuesta, decisiones, procesos y resultados, aproximándose a los impactos de las mismas, en el período de 1975 a 2014. MÉTODOS: Se realizó un estudio de análisis y evaluación de políticas públicas, con un diseño mixto. Se seleccionaron algunas zoonosis con base en su importancia en salud pública, epidemiología, ubicación en la política y disponibilidad de información consecutiva. Se utilizaron fuentes secundarias de tipo documental y fuentes primarias por medio de una encuesta comentada. Se construyó un marco interpretativo, histórico y estructural, desde el punto de vista económico, epidemiológico y político. Para el análisis de las políticas se utilizó el enfoque secuencial y, de manera complementaria, el enfoque de desarrollo institucional. Se llevó a cabo un análisis de tendencias de las zoonosis seleccionadas. RESULTADOS: El marco interpretativo abordó el contexto macro y los procesos clave en dos períodos: 1975-1990 y 1990-2014. El análisis de las políticas públicas en zoonosis se adelantó según su nivel de decisión y relaciones verticales y horizontales entre las mismas. Se obtuvo un análisis de tendencias de las zoonosis en el largo plazo, aproximándose a una valoración del impacto de las políticas. CONCLUSIONES: La diversificación y profundización instrumental de las políticas sugieren que las mismas se han acercado a la comprensión y capacidad de manejo de las problemáticas complejas de las zoonosis. Sin embargo, el análisis de tendencias sugiere que el impacto de las políticas públicas en zoonosis sigue siendo limitado.

Evaluación de la salud pública en algunos zoológicos de Colombia. Fase I:: diseño y validación de instrumentos / Valuating public health in some zoos in Colombia. Phase 1: designing and validating instruments

Objetivo Diseñar y validar instrumentos para identificar problemas de Salud Pública en algunos zoológicos de Colombia, que permitan la evaluación de la misma. Métodos Se diseñaron y validaron cuatro instrumentos con la participación de cinco zoológicos. La validación de los instrumentos se abordó en las dimensiones de apariencia, contenido, sensibilidad al cambio, pruebas de confiabilidad y determinación de la utilidad. Para la calificación se construyó una escala que asignó un máximo de 400 puntos, con los siguientes intervalos de valoración: 350-400 puntos: buen manejo de la salud pública; 100-349 puntos: regular manejo y; 0-99 puntos: deficiente manejo. Como parte de la validación se aplicaron los instrumentos en los cinco zoológicos y se conformó una línea de base para una futura evaluación de la salud pública en los mismos. Resultados Se obtuvieron cuatro instrumentos validados y útiles para la evaluación de la salud pública en los zoológicos de Colombia. Los cinco zoológicos presentaron un manejo regular de la salud pública. La línea de base obtenida durante la validación de los instrumentos permitió identificar fortalezas y debilidades en cuanto al manejo de la salud pública en los zoológicos. Conclusiones Los instrumentos obtenidos evalúan de manera general y específica el manejo de la salud pública; permiten diagnosticar, identificar, cuantificar y calificar en términos de salud pública a los zoológicos de Colombia. La línea de base brinda un punto de partida que permitirá comparaciones y seguimiento de la situación de la salud pública en los zoológicos de Colombia.

Objective Designing and validating instruments for identifying public health problems in some zoological parks in Colombia, thereby allowing them to be evaluated. Methods Four instruments were designed and validated along with the participation of five zoos. The instruments were validated regarding appearance, content, sensitivity to change, reliability tests and determining the tools' usefulness. An evaluation scale was created which assigned a maximum of 400 points, having the following evaluation intervals: 350-400 points meant good public health management, 100-349 points for regular management and 0-99 points for deficient management. The instruments were applied to the five zoos as part of the validation, forming a base-line for future evaluation of public health in them. Results Four valid and useful instruments were obtained for evaluating public health in zoos in Colombia. The five zoos presented regular public health management. The base-line obtained when validating the instruments led to identifying strengths and weaknesses regarding public health management in the zoos. Conclusions The instruments obtained generally and specifically evaluated public health management; they led to diagnosing, identifying, quantifying and scoring zoos in Colombia in terms of public health. The base-line provided a starting point for making comparisons and enabling future follow-up of public health in Colombian zoos.

[Valuating public health in some zoos in Colombia. Phase 1: designing and validating instruments]. / Evaluación de la salud pública en algunos zoológicos de Colombia. Fase I:: diseño y validación de instrumentos.

OBJECTIVE: Designing and validating instruments for identifying public health problems in some zoological parks in Colombia, thereby allowing them to be evaluated. METHODS: Four instruments were designed and validated along with the participation of five zoos. The instruments were validated regarding appearance, content, sensitivity to change, reliability tests and determining the tools' usefulness. An evaluation scale was created which assigned a maximum of 400 points, having the following evaluation intervals: 350-400 points meant good public health management, 100-349 points for regular management and 0-99 points for deficient management. The instruments were applied to the five zoos as part of the validation, forming a base-line for future evaluation of public health in them. RESULTS: Four valid and useful instruments were obtained for evaluating public health in zoos in Colombia. The five zoos presented regular public health management. The base-line obtained when validating the instruments led to identifying strengths and weaknesses regarding public health management in the zoos. CONCLUSIONS: The instruments obtained generally and specifically evaluated public health management; they led to diagnosing, identifying, quantifying and scoring zoos in Colombia in terms of public health. The base-line provided a starting point for making comparisons and enabling future follow-up of public health in Colombian zoos.

Enfermedades emergentes y barrera de especies: riesgo del herpesvirus equino 9 / Emerging diseases and species barrier: the risk of equine herpesvirus 9

El salto en la barrera de especies es responsable de gran parte de las enfermedades emergentes y re-emergentes en el mundo; en la actualidad, no están completamente esclarecidos los mecanismos involucrados en la restricción de un agente hacia un(os) hospedero determinado(s) ni en los procesos necesarios para que éste cruce la barrera de especie e invada un nuevo hospedero. Los saltos hacia nuevas espe­cies, generalmente se manifiestan con una alta morbilidad y mortalidad en la especie nueva, acarreando grandes pérdidas económicas y en múltiples ocasiones causando pérdida de vidas humanas. Por su parte, las especies exóticas, presentes tanto en los hogares como en los parques zoológicos, se han convertido en uno de los princi­pales factores de riesgo para la emergencia y re-emergencia de enfermedades en poblaciones animales y humanas, y por tanto se hace necesario que se evalúen las infecciones que puedan tener potencial para realizar el llamado "salto" y acarrear graves consecuencias tanto para poblaciones animales como humanas. Utilizando el Herpesvirus equino-9 como ejemplo, el presente ensayo pretende crear conciencia sobre el riesgo existente de un salto en la barrera de especie y las posibles implica­ciones del mismo.

Jumping the species barrier is responsible for a large part of emerging and re-emerging diseases around the world; however, the mechan­isms involved in restricting an agent to a given host are currently not fully understood, nor what is necessary to leap the species barrier to invade a new host. These leaps to new species are usually manifest by high rates of morbidity and mortality in the new species, leading to severe economic losses and sometimes causing loss of human life. On the other hand, exotic species both in homes and zoos have become one of the major risk factors for the emergence and re-emergence of disease in human and animal populations and it has thus become necessary to assess infections which may be able to make the so-called "jump" and have serious consequences for human and animal populations. This article seeks to raise awareness regarding the risk of a leap over the species barrier using the equine herpesvirus-9 as an example and its possible impli­cations.

[Emerging diseases and species barrier: the risk of equine herpesvirus 9]. / Enfermedades emergentes y barrera de especies: riesgo del herpesvirus equino 9.

Jumping the species barrier is responsible for a large part of emerging and re-emerging diseases around the world; however, the mechanisms involved in restricting an agent to a given host are currently not fully understood, nor what is necessary to leap the species barrier to invade a new host. These leaps to new species are usually manifest by high rates of morbidity and mortality in the new species, leading to severe economic losses and sometimes causing loss of human life. On the other hand, exotic species both in homes and zoos have become one of the major risk factors for the emergence and re-emergence of disease in human and animal populations and it has thus become necessary to assess infections which may be able to make the so-called 'jump' and have serious consequences for human and animal populations. This article seeks to raise awareness regarding the risk of a leap over the species barrier using the equine herpesvirus-9 as an example and its possible implications.

Contaminación de los Parques Públicos de la Localidad de Suba, Bogotá con Nemátodos Zoonóticos / Zoonotic nematode contamination in recreational areas of Suba, Bogotá

Objetivo: Establecer la presencia en los suelos de parques públicos de la localidad de Suba en la ciudad de Bogotá, de nemátodos gastrointestinales zoonóticos durante el periodo comprendido entre Julio de 2005 y Junio de 2006. Metodología: A través de una sedimentación inicial en suelo y posterior flotación con solución de Sheather, fue posible determinar la presencia de huevos, larvas y ooquistes de varios parásitos gastrointestinales, algunos de ellos responsables de importantes enfermedades zoonóticas. Resultados: Se identificados parásitos en 376 muestras que fueron descritos como huevos de Ancylostoma spp 10,7 por ciento, larvas de Ancylostoma spp 0,6 por ciento, huevos de Toxocara spp 5,4 por ciento, huevos de Strongyloides spp 3,3 por ciento, huevos de Dipylidium spp 0,1 por ciento y ooquistes de Sarcocystis spp 0,1 por ciento. Otros parásitos identificados fueron huevos de Toxascaris spp 0,9 por ciento, huevos de Spirocerca spp 0,3 por ciento, ooquistes de Isospora spp 0,3 por ciento. No fue posible clasificar algunas larvas y huevos en 522 muestras; no hubo evidencia de parásitos en 702 muestras 45 por ciento. El 94,2 por ciento (n=49) de los parques estaban contaminados. Conclusiones: Lo anterior, indica que dichos parques constituyen un factor de riesgo para la adquisición de enfermedades parasitarias en los animales y los seres humanos. Debido a la relevancia de este problema de Salud Pública, es necesario instaurar políticas gubernamentales, involucrando la comunidad, educando las familias para mejorar sus prácticas sanitarias en lugares recreacionales con relación a la tenencia adecuada de los animales domésticos (mascotas).

Objective: Establishing the presence of zoonotic gastrointestinal nematodosin soil samples in recreational areas in Suba (one of the largest localities of Bogotá , Colombia ) between July 2005 and June 2006. Methodology: The presence of several gastrointestinal parasites' eggs, larvae and oocysts were determined by initial soil sedimentation and later flotation with Sheather solution; some of them were responsible for important zoonotic diseases affecting the human population. Results: Parasites were identified in 376 samples: Ancylostoma larvae (10,7 percent), Ancylostoma eggs (0,6 percent), Toxocara eggs (5,8 percent), Strongyloides eggs (3,3 percent), Dipylidium eggs (0,06 percent) and Sarcocystis oocysts (0,06 percent). Other parasites identified were Toxascaris eggs (0,9 percent), Spirocerca eggs (0,25 percent) and Isospora oocysts (0,25 percent). Some larvae and eggs present in 522 samples could not be classified and there was no evidence of parasites in 702 samples (45 percent). 94,2 percent, (n=49) of the recreational area was thus polluted. Conclusions: The high percentage of recreational areas so polluted indicated that these places would constitute a risk factor for the transmission of parasitic diseases to animals and human beings. Due to this sanitary problem's relevance in public health programmes, government policy must be determined involving communities so that people are educated to improve their sanitary practices in recreational places regarding caring for their pets.

[Zoonotic nematode contamination in recreational areas of Suba, Bogotá]. / Contaminación de los Parques Públicos de la Localidad de Suba, Bogotá con Nemátodos Zoonóticos.

OBJECTIVE: Establishing the presence of zoonotic gastrointestinal nematodosin soil samples in recreational areas in Suba (one of the largest localities of Bogotá, Colombia) between July 2005 and June 2006. METHODOLOGY: The presence of several gastrointestinal parasites' eggs, larvae and oocysts were determined by initial soil sedimentation and later flotation with Sheather solution; some of them were responsible for important zoonotic diseases affecting the human population. RESULTS: Parasites were identified in 376 samples: Ancylostoma larvae (10.7%), Ancylostoma eggs (0.6%), Toxocara eggs (5.8%), Strongyloides eggs (3.3%), Dipylidium eggs (0.06%) and Sarcocystis oocysts (0.06%). Other parasites identified were Toxascaris eggs (0.9%), Spirocerca eggs (0.25%) and Isospora oocysts (0.25%). Some larvae and eggs present in 522 samples could not be classified and there was no evidence of parasites in 702 samples (45%). 94.2%, (n=49) of the recreational area was thus polluted. CONCLUSIONS: The high percentage of recreational areas so polluted indicated that these places would constitute a risk factor for the transmission of parasitic diseases to animals and human beings. Due to this sanitary problem's relevance in public health programmes, government policy must be determined involving communities so that people are educated to improve their sanitary practices in recreational places regarding caring for their pets.

[Micotoxins in public health]. / Micotoxinas en la salud pública.

Mycotoxins have become a worldwide problem due to their high incidence and levels of occurrence in human food and animal feed. The conditions for colonising substrates by mycotoxigenic fungus and later contamination by mycotoxins play an important role in surveillance and control strategies. The main mycotoxigenic funguses are the Aspergillus spp., Penicillium spp. and Fusarium spp genera, the main mycotoxins of interest for human health being aflatoxins, trichothecenes, ochratoxin A, fumonisins and zearalenone. These mycotoxins' toxic action mechanisms constitute a risk for both human and animal health, causing diseases in both populations. The situation in Colombia is complex due to the lack of research having been carried out; the few studies made to date have demonstrated the high levels of contamination of food and feed in the country. This paper discusses mycotoxins' potential risk to public health, the difficulties involved in diagnosis and legislation and suggests policy implications for food safety.

Micotoxinas en la Salud Pública / Micotoxins in Public Health

Las micotoxinas constituyen un problema en el ámbito mundial por su alta incidencia y niveles de ocurrencia en los alimentos para humanos y animales. Las condiciones de colonización de los sustratos por hongos micotoxigénicos así como su posterior contaminación con micotoxinas juegan un papel fundamental en las estrategias de vigilancia y control. Entre los principales hongos micotoxigénicos se encuentran los géneros Aspergillus spp., Penicillium spp. y Fusarium spp. Dentro de las familias más importantes de micotoxinas se encuentran: las aflatoxinas, los tricoticenos, la ocratoxina A, las fumonisinas y la zearalenona. Los diferentes mecanismos de acción tóxica de estas micotoxinas constituyen un riesgo para la salud humana y animal constituyéndose en una problemática de salud pública. En Colombia la situación es compleja dada la deficiente investigación al respecto, los estudios realizados en el país han demostrado que la contaminación de alimentos por algunas micotoxinas es significativa y que se deben formular políticas sanitarias para afrontar este limitante. Se discute el riesgo potencial de las micotoxinas para la salud pública, las dificultades en el diagnóstico y la legislación así como las implicaciones en la seguridad e inocuidad alimentaria.

[Incorporation of the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point system (HACCP) in food legislation]. / Incorporacin del Sistema de Análisis de Peligros y Puntos Criticos de Control en la legislación alimentaria.

The Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point system (HACCP), recommended by different international organizations as the Codex Alimentarius Commission, the World Trade Organization (WTO), the International Office of Epizootics (OIE) and the International Convention for Vegetables Protection (ICPV) amongst others, contributes to ensuring the innocuity of food along the agro-alimentary chain and requires of Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) for its implementation, GMP's which are legislated in most countries. Since 1997, Colombia has set rules and legislation for application of HACCP system in agreement with international standards. This paper discusses the potential and difficulties of the legislation enforcement and suggests some policy implications towards food safety.

[Challenges and perspectives of veterinary public health]. / Retos y perspectivas de la salud pública veterinaria.

This article presents the conceptual basis for veterinary public health-VPH, including historical aspects of its constitution and development, its fields of action, and its current challenges. It also presents a reflection on VPH within the frame of the veterinary services and it finally proposes that education plays a fundamental role in order to face the challenges of a new era.