The SlyD metallochaperone targets iron-sulfur biogenesis pathways and the TCA cycle.

IMPORTANCE: Correct folding of proteins represents a crucial step for their functions. Among the chaperones that control protein folding, the ubiquitous PPIases catalyze the cis/trans-isomerization of peptidyl-prolyl bonds. Only few protein targets of PPIases have been reported in bacteria. To fill this knowledge gap, we performed a large-scale two-hybrid screen to search for targets of the Escherichia coli and Helicobacter pylori SlyD PPIase-metallochaperone. SlyD from both organisms interacts with enzymes (i) containing metal cofactors, (ii) from the central metabolism tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, and (iii) involved in the formation of the essential and ancestral Fe-S cluster cofactor. E. coli and H. pylori ∆slyD mutants present similar phenotypes of diminished susceptibility to antibiotics and to oxidative stress. In H. pylori, measurements of the intracellular ATP content, proton motive force, and activity of TCA cycle proteins suggest that SlyD regulates TCA cycle enzymes by controlling the formation of their indispensable Fe-S clusters.

Expansion of nickel binding- and histidine-rich proteins during gastric adaptation of Helicobacter species.

Acquisition and homeostasis of essential metals during host colonization by bacterial pathogens rely on metal uptake, trafficking, and storage proteins. How these factors have evolved within bacterial pathogens is poorly defined. Urease, a nickel enzyme, is essential for Helicobacter pylori to colonize the acidic stomach. Our previous data suggest that acquisition of nickel transporters and a histidine-rich protein (HRP) involved in nickel storage in H. pylori and gastric Helicobacter spp. have been essential evolutionary events for gastric colonization. Using bioinformatics, proteomics, and phylogenetics, we extended this analysis to determine how evolution has framed the repertoire of HRPs among 39 Epsilonproteobacteria; 18 gastric and 11 non-gastric enterohepatic (EH) Helicobacter spp., as well as 10 other Epsilonproteobacteria. We identified a total of 213 HRPs distributed in 22 protein families named orthologous groups (OGs) with His-rich domains, including 15 newly described OGs. Gastric Helicobacter spp. are enriched in HRPs (7.7 ± 1.9 HRPs/strain) as compared to EH Helicobacter spp. (1.9 ± 1.0 HRPs/strain) with a particular prevalence of HRPs with C-terminal histidine-rich domains in gastric species. The expression and nickel-binding capacity of several HRPs was validated in five gastric Helicobacter spp. We established the evolutionary history of new HRP families, such as the periplasmic HP0721-like proteins and the HugZ-type heme oxygenases. The expansion of histidine-rich extensions in gastric Helicobacter spp. proteins is intriguing but can tentatively be associated with the presence of the urease nickel enzyme. We conclude that this HRP expansion is associated with unique properties of organisms that rely on large intracellular nickel amounts for their survival.

Nickel, an essential virulence determinant of Helicobacter pylori: Transport and trafficking pathways and their targeting by bismuth.

Metal acquisition and intracellular trafficking are crucial for all cells and metal ions have been recognized as virulence determinants in bacterial pathogens. Nickel is required for the pathogenicity of H. pylori. This bacterial pathogen colonizes the stomach of about half of the human population worldwide and is associated with gastric cancer that is responsible for 800,000 deaths per year. H. pylori possesses two nickel-enzymes that are essential for in vivo colonization, a [NiFe] hydrogenase and an abundant urease responsible for resistance to gastric acidity. Because of these two enzymes, survival of H. pylori relies on an important supply of nickel, implying tight control strategies to avoid its toxic accumulation or deprivation. H. pylori possesses original mechanisms for nickel uptake, distribution, storage and trafficking that will be discussed in this review. During evolution, acquisition of nickel transporters and specific nickel-binding proteins has been a decisive event to allow Helicobacter species to become able to colonize the stomach. Accordingly, many of the factors involved in these mechanisms are required for mouse colonization by H. pylori. These mechanisms are controlled at different levels including protein interaction networks, transcriptional, post-transcriptional and post-translational regulation. Bismuth is another metal used in combination with antibiotics to efficiently treat H. pylori infections. Although the precise mode of action of bismuth is unknown, many targets have been identified in H. pylori and there is growing evidence that bismuth interferes with the essential nickel pathways. Understanding the metal pathways will help improve treatments against H. pylori and other pathogens.

A novel mode of control of nickel uptake by a multifunctional metallochaperone.

Cellular metal homeostasis is a critical process for all organisms, requiring tight regulation. In the major pathogen Helicobacter pylori, the acquisition of nickel is an essential virulence determinant as this metal is a cofactor for the acid-resistance enzyme, urease. Nickel uptake relies on the NixA permease and the NiuBDE ABC transporter. Till now, bacterial metal transporters were reported to be controlled at their transcriptional level. Here we uncovered post-translational regulation of the essential Niu transporter in H. pylori. Indeed, we demonstrate that SlyD, a protein combining peptidyl-prolyl isomerase (PPIase), chaperone, and metal-binding properties, is required for the activity of the Niu transporter. Using two-hybrid assays, we found that SlyD directly interacts with the NiuD permease subunit and identified a motif critical for this contact. Mutants of the different SlyD functional domains were constructed and used to perform in vitro PPIase activity assays and four different in vivo tests measuring nickel intracellular accumulation or transport in H. pylori. In vitro, SlyD PPIase activity is down-regulated by nickel, independently of its C-terminal region reported to bind metals. In vivo, a role of SlyD PPIase function was only revealed upon exposure to high nickel concentrations. Most importantly, the IF chaperone domain of SlyD was shown to be mandatory for Niu activation under all in vivo conditions. These data suggest that SlyD is required for the active functional conformation of the Niu permease and regulates its activity through a novel mechanism implying direct protein interaction, thereby acting as a gatekeeper of nickel uptake. Finally, in agreement with a central role of SlyD, this protein is essential for the colonization of the mouse model by H. pylori.

Characterization in Helicobacter pylori of a Nickel Transporter Essential for Colonization That Was Acquired during Evolution by Gastric Helicobacter Species.

Metal acquisition is crucial for all cells and for the virulence of many bacterial pathogens. In particular, nickel is a virulence determinant for the human gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori as it is the cofactor of two enzymes essential for in vivo colonization, urease and a [NiFe] hydrogenase. To import nickel despite its scarcity in the human body, H. pylori requires efficient uptake mechanisms that are only partially defined. Indeed, alternative ways of nickel entry were predicted to exist in addition to the well-described NixA permease. Using a genetic screen, we identified an ABC transporter, that we designated NiuBDE, as a novel H. pylori nickel transport system. Unmarked mutants carrying deletions of nixA, niuD and/or niuB, were constructed and used to measure (i) tolerance to toxic nickel exposure, (ii) intracellular nickel content by ICP-OES, (iii) transport of radioactive nickel and (iv) expression of a reporter gene controlled by nickel concentration. We demonstrated that NiuBDE and NixA function separately and are the sole nickel transporters in H. pylori. NiuBDE, but not NixA, also transports cobalt and bismuth, a metal currently used in H. pylori eradication therapy. Both NiuBDE and NixA participate in nickel-dependent urease activation at pH 5 and survival under acidic conditions mimicking those encountered in the stomach. However, only NiuBDE is able to carry out this activity at neutral pH and is essential for colonization of the mouse stomach. Phylogenomic analyses indicated that both nixA and niuBDE genes have been acquired via horizontal gene transfer by the last common ancestor of the gastric Helicobacter species. Our work highlights the importance of this evolutionary event for the emergence of Helicobacter gastric species that are adapted to the hostile environment of the stomach where the capacity of Helicobacter to import nickel and thereby activate urease needs to be optimized.

Evolution of Helicobacter: Acquisition by Gastric Species of Two Histidine-Rich Proteins Essential for Colonization.

Metal acquisition and intracellular trafficking are crucial for all cells and metal ions have been recognized as virulence determinants in bacterial pathogens. Virulence of the human gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori is dependent on nickel, cofactor of two enzymes essential for in vivo colonization, urease and [NiFe] hydrogenase. We found that two small paralogous nickel-binding proteins with high content in Histidine (Hpn and Hpn-2) play a central role in maintaining non-toxic intracellular nickel content and in controlling its intracellular trafficking. Measurements of metal resistance, intracellular nickel contents, urease activities and interactomic analysis were performed. We observed that Hpn acts as a nickel-sequestration protein, while Hpn-2 is not. In vivo, Hpn and Hpn-2 form homo-multimers, interact with each other, Hpn interacts with the UreA urease subunit while Hpn and Hpn-2 interact with the HypAB hydrogenase maturation proteins. In addition, Hpn-2 is directly or indirectly restricting urease activity while Hpn is required for full urease activation. Based on these data, we present a model where Hpn and Hpn-2 participate in a common pathway of controlled nickel transfer to urease. Using bioinformatics and top-down proteomics to identify the predicted proteins, we established that Hpn-2 is only expressed by H. pylori and its closely related species Helicobacter acinonychis. Hpn was detected in every gastric Helicobacter species tested and is absent from the enterohepatic Helicobacter species. Our phylogenomic analysis revealed that Hpn acquisition was concomitant with the specialization of Helicobacter to colonization of the gastric environment and the duplication at the origin of hpn-2 occurred in the common ancestor of H. pylori and H. acinonychis. Finally, Hpn and Hpn-2 were found to be required for colonization of the mouse model by H. pylori. Our data show that during evolution of the Helicobacter genus, acquisition of Hpn and Hpn-2 by gastric Helicobacter species constituted a decisive evolutionary event to allow Helicobacter to colonize the hostile gastric environment, in which no other bacteria persistently thrives. This acquisition was key for the emergence of one of the most successful bacterial pathogens, H. pylori.

Common themes and unique proteins for the uptake and trafficking of nickel, a metal essential for the virulence of Helicobacter pylori.

Nickel is a virulence determinant for the human gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori. Indeed, H. pylori possesses two nickel-enzymes that are essential for in vivo colonization, [NiFe] hydrogenase and urease, an abundant virulence factor that contains 24 nickel ions per active complex. Because of these two enzymes, survival of H. pylori relies on an important supply of nickel, implying a tight control of its distribution and storage. In this review, we will present the pathways of activation of the nickel enzymes as well as original mechanisms found in H. pylori for the uptake, trafficking and distribution of nickel between the two enzymes. These include (i) an outer-membrane nickel uptake system, the FrpB4 TonB-dependent transporter, (ii) overlapping protein complexes and interaction networks involved in nickel trafficking and distribution between urease and hydrogenase and, (iii) Helicobacter specific nickel-binding proteins that are involved in nickel storage and can play the role of metallo-chaperones. Finally, we will discuss the implication of the nickel trafficking partners in virulence and propose them as novel therapeutic targets for treatments against H. pylori infection.

In vivo [Fe-S] cluster acquisition by IscR and NsrR, two stress regulators in Escherichia coli.

The multi-proteins Isc and Suf systems catalyse the biogenesis of [Fe-S] proteins. Here we investigate how NsrR and IscR, transcriptional regulators that sense NO and [Fe-S] homeostasis, acquire their [Fe-S] clusters under both normal and iron limitation conditions. Clusters directed at the apo-NsrR and apo-IscR proteins are built on either of the two scaffolds, IscU or SufB. However, differences arise in [Fe-S] delivery steps. In the case of NsrR, scaffolds deliver clusters to either one of the two ATCs, IscA and SufA, and, subsequently, to the 'non-Isc non-Suf' ATC, ErpA. Nevertheless, a high level of SufA can bypass the requirement for ErpA. In the case of IscR, several routes occur. One does not include assistance of any ATC. Others implicate ATCs IscA or ErpA, but, surprisingly, SufA was totally absent from any IscR maturation pathways. Both IscR and NsrR have the intrinsic capacity to sense iron limitation. However, NsrR appeared to be efficiently matured by Isc and Suf, thereby preventing NsrR to act as a physiologically relevant iron sensor. This work emphasizes that different maturation pathways arise as a function of the apo-target considered, possibly in relation with the type of cluster, [2Fe-2S] versus [4Fe-4S], it binds.

Molecular organization, biochemical function, cellular role and evolution of NfuA, an atypical Fe-S carrier.

Biosynthesis of iron-sulphur (Fe-S) proteins is catalysed by multi-protein systems, ISC and SUF. However, 'non-ISC, non-SUF' Fe-S biosynthesis factors have been described, both in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Here we report in vitro and in vivo investigations of such a 'non-ISC, non SUF' component, the Nfu proteins. Phylogenomic analysis allowed us to define four subfamilies. Escherichia coli NfuA is within subfamily II. Most members of this subfamily have a Nfu domain fused to a 'degenerate' A-type carrier domain (ATC*) lacking Fe-S cluster co-ordinating Cys ligands. The Nfu domain binds a [4Fe-4S] cluster while the ATC* domain interacts with NuoG (a complex I subunit) and aconitase B (AcnB). In vitro, holo-NfuA promotes maturation of AcnB. In vivo, NfuA is necessary for full activity of complex I under aerobic growth conditions, and of AcnB in the presence of superoxide. NfuA receives Fe-S clusters from IscU/HscBA and SufBCD scaffolds and eventually transfers them to the ATCs IscA and SufA. This study provides significant information on one of the Fe-S biogenesis factors that has been often used as a building block by ISC and/or SUF synthesizing organisms, including bacteria, plants and animals.

Evolution of Fe/S cluster biogenesis in the anaerobic parasite Blastocystis.

Iron/sulfur cluster (ISC)-containing proteins are essential components of cells. In most eukaryotes, Fe/S clusters are synthesized by the mitochondrial ISC machinery, the cytosolic iron/sulfur assembly system, and, in photosynthetic species, a plastid sulfur-mobilization (SUF) system. Here we show that the anaerobic human protozoan parasite Blastocystis, in addition to possessing ISC and iron/sulfur assembly systems, expresses a fused version of the SufC and SufB proteins of prokaryotes that it has acquired by lateral transfer from an archaeon related to the Methanomicrobiales, an important lineage represented in the human gastrointestinal tract microbiome. Although components of the Blastocystis ISC system function within its anaerobic mitochondrion-related organelles and can functionally replace homologues in Trypanosoma brucei, its SufCB protein has similar biochemical properties to its prokaryotic homologues, functions within the parasite's cytosol, and is up-regulated under oxygen stress. Blastocystis is unique among eukaryotic pathogens in having adapted to its parasitic lifestyle by acquiring a SUF system from nonpathogenic Archaea to synthesize Fe/S clusters under oxygen stress.

Effects on growth by changes of the balance between GreA, GreB, and DksA suggest mutual competition and functional redundancy in Escherichia coli.

It is well known that ppGpp and DksA interact with bacterial RNA polymerase (RNAP) to alter promoter activity. This study suggests that GreA plays a major role and GreB plays a minor role in the ppGpp-DksA regulatory network. We present evidence that DksA and GreA/GreB are redundant and/or share similar functions: (i) on minimal medium GreA overproduction suppresses the growth defects of a dksA mutant; (ii) GreA and DksA overexpression partially suppresses the auxotrophy of a ppGpp-deficient strain; (iii) microarrays show that many genes are regulated similarly by GreA and DksA. We also find instances where GreA and DksA seem to act in opposition: (i) complete suppression of auxotrophy occurs by overexpression of GreA or DksA only in the absence of the other protein; (ii) PgadA and PgadE promoter fusions, along with many other genes, are dramatically affected in vivo by GreA overproduction only when DksA is absent; (iii) GreA and DksA show opposite regulation of a subset of genes. Mutations in key acidic residues of GreA and DksA suggest that properties seen here probably are not explained by known biochemical activities of these proteins. Our results indicate that the general pattern of gene expression and, in turn, the ability of Escherichia coli to grow under a defined condition are the result of a complex interplay between GreA, GreB, and DksA that also involves mutual control of their gene expression, competition for RNA polymerase binding, and similar or opposite action on RNA polymerase activity.

Circuitry linking the Csr and stringent response global regulatory systems.

CsrA protein regulates important cellular processes by binding to target mRNAs and altering their translation and/or stability. In Escherichia coli, CsrA binds to sRNAs, CsrB and CsrC, which sequester CsrA and antagonize its activity. Here, mRNAs for relA, spoT and dksA of the stringent response system were found among 721 different transcripts that copurified with CsrA. Many of the transcripts that copurified with CsrA were previously determined to respond to ppGpp and/or DksA. We examined multiple regulatory interactions between the Csr and stringent response systems. Most importantly, DksA and ppGpp robustly activated csrB/C transcription (10-fold), while they modestly activated csrA expression. We propose that CsrA-mediated regulation is relieved during the stringent response. Gel shift assays confirmed high affinity binding of CsrA to relA mRNA leader and weaker interactions with dksA and spoT. Reporter fusions, qRT-PCR and immunoblotting showed that CsrA repressed relA expression, and (p)ppGpp accumulation during stringent response was enhanced in a csrA mutant. CsrA had modest to negligible effects on dksA and spoT expression. Transcription of dksA was negatively autoregulated via a feedback loop that tended to mask CsrA effects. We propose that the Csr system fine-tunes the stringent response and discuss biological implications of the composite circuitry.

The alr2505 (osiS) gene from Anabaena sp. strain PCC7120 encodes a cysteine desulfurase induced by oxidative stress.

NifS-like cysteine desulfurases are widespread enzymes involved in the mobilization of sulfur from cysteine. The genome of the filamentous diazotrophic cyanobacterium Anabaena PCC 7120 contains four open reading frames potentially encoding NifS-like proteins. One of them, alr2505, belongs to the pkn22 operon, which enables Anabaena to cope with oxidative stress. The Alr2505 protein was purified and found to share all the features characteristic of cysteine desufurases. This is the first NifS-like enzyme to be functionally characterized in this bacterium. On the basis of the transcriptional profiling of all nifS-like genes in Anabaena, it is concluded that alr2505 is the only cysteine desulfurase-encoding gene induced by oxidative stress. The function of Alr2505, which was termed OsiS, is discussed.

Iron-sulfur (Fe/S) protein biogenesis: phylogenomic and genetic studies of A-type carriers.

Iron sulfur (Fe/S) proteins are ubiquitous and participate in multiple biological processes, from photosynthesis to DNA repair. Iron and sulfur are highly reactive chemical species, and the mechanisms allowing the multiprotein systems ISC and SUF to assist Fe/S cluster formation in vivo have attracted considerable attention. Here, A-Type components of these systems (ATCs for A-Type Carriers) are studied by phylogenomic and genetic analyses. ATCs that have emerged in the last common ancestor of bacteria were conserved in most bacteria and were acquired by eukaryotes and few archaea via horizontal gene transfers. Many bacteria contain multiple ATCs, as a result of gene duplication and/or horizontal gene transfer events. Based on evolutionary considerations, we could define three subfamilies: ATC-I, -II and -III. Escherichia coli, which has one ATC-I (ErpA) and two ATC-IIs (IscA and SufA), was used as a model to investigate functional redundancy between ATCs in vivo. Genetic analyses revealed that, under aerobiosis, E. coli IscA and SufA are functionally redundant carriers, as both are potentially able to receive an Fe/S cluster from IscU or the SufBCD complex and transfer it to ErpA. In contrast, under anaerobiosis, redundancy occurs between ErpA and IscA, which are both potentially able to receive Fe/S clusters from IscU and transfer them to an apotarget. Our combined phylogenomic and genetic study indicates that ATCs play a crucial role in conveying ready-made Fe/S clusters from components of the biogenesis systems to apotargets. We propose a model wherein the conserved biochemical function of ATCs provides multiple paths for supplying Fe/S clusters to apotargets. This model predicts the occurrence of a dynamic network, the structure and composition of which vary with the growth conditions. As an illustration, we depict three ways for a given protein to be matured, which appears to be dependent on the demand for Fe/S biogenesis.

TraR, a homolog of a RNAP secondary channel interactor, modulates transcription.

Recent structural and biochemical studies have identified a novel control mechanism of gene expression mediated through the secondary channel of RNA Polymerase (RNAP) during transcription initiation. Specifically, the small nucleotide ppGpp, along with DksA, a RNAP secondary channel interacting factor, modifies the kinetics of transcription initiation, resulting in, among other events, down-regulation of ribosomal RNA synthesis and up-regulation of several amino acid biosynthetic and transport genes during nutritional stress. Until now, this mode of regulation of RNAP was primarily associated with ppGpp. Here, we identify TraR, a DksA homolog that mimics ppGpp/DksA effects on RNAP. First, expression of TraR compensates for dksA transcriptional repression and activation activities in vivo. Second, mutagenesis of a conserved amino acid of TraR known to be critical for DksA function abolishes its activity, implying both structural and functional similarity to DksA. Third, unlike DksA, TraR does not require ppGpp for repression of the rrnB P1 promoter in vivo and in vitro or activation of amino acid biosynthesis/transport genes in vivo. Implications for DksA/ppGpp mechanism and roles of TraR in horizontal gene transfer and virulence are discussed.

The CsdA cysteine desulphurase promotes Fe/S biogenesis by recruiting Suf components and participates to a new sulphur transfer pathway by recruiting CsdL (ex-YgdL), a ubiquitin-modifying-like protein.

Cysteine desulphurases are primary sources of sulphur that can eventually be used for Fe/S biogenesis or thiolation of various cofactors and tRNA. Escherichia coli contains three such enzymes, IscS, SufS and CsdA. The importance of IscS and SufS in Fe/S biogenesis is well established. The physiological role of CsdA in contrast remains uncertain. We provide here additional evidences for a functional redundancy between the three cysteine desulphurases in vivo. In particular, we show that a deficiency in isoprenoid biosynthesis is the unique cause of the lethality of the iscS sufS mutant. Moreover, we show that CsdA is engaged in two separate sulphur transfer pathways. In one pathway, CsdA interacts functionally with SufE-SufBCD proteins to assist Fe/S biogenesis. In another pathway, CsdA interacts with CsdE and a newly discovered protein, which we called CsdL, resembling E1-like proteins found in ubiquitin-like modification systems. We propose this new pathway to allow synthesis of an as yet to be discovered thiolated compound.

Antagonistic regulation of Escherichia coli ribosomal RNA rrnB P1 promoter activity by GreA and DksA.

The Escherichia coli proteins DksA, GreA, and GreB are all structural homologs that bind the secondary channel of RNA polymerase (RNAP) but are thought to act at different levels of transcription. DksA, with its co-factor ppGpp, inhibits rrnB P1 transcription initiation, whereas GreA and GreB activate RNAP to cleave back-tracked RNA during elongational pausing. Here, in vivo and in vitro evidence reveals antagonistic regulation of rrnB P1 transcription initiation by Gre factors (particularly GreA) and DksA; GreA activates and DksA inhibits. DksA inhibition is epistatic to GreA activation. Both modes of regulation are ppGpp-independent in vivo but DksA inhibition requires ppGpp in vitro. Kinetic experiments and studies of rrnB P1-RNA polymerase complexes suggest that GreA mediates conformational changes at an initiation step in the absence of NTP substrates, even before DksA acts. GreA effects on rrnB P1 open complex conformation reveal a new feature of GreA distinct from its general function in elongation. Our findings support the idea that a balance of the interactions between the three secondary channel-binding proteins and RNAP can provide a new mode for regulating transcription.

Iron limitation induces SpoT-dependent accumulation of ppGpp in Escherichia coli.

In Escherichia coli the beta-lactam mecillinam specifically inhibits penicillin-binding protein 2 (PBP2), a peptidoglycan transpeptidase essential for maintaining rod shape. We have previously shown that PBP2 inactivation results in a cell division block and that an increased concentration of the nucleotide ppGpp, effector of the RelA-dependent stringent response, confers mecillinam resistance and allows cells to divide as spheres in the absence of PBP2 activity. In this study we have characterized an insertion mutation which confers mecillinam resistance in wild-type and DeltarelA strains but not in DeltarelADeltaspoT strains, devoid of ppGpp. The mutant has an insertion in the fes gene, coding for enterochelin esterase. This cytoplasmic enzyme hydrolyses enterochelin-Fe(3+) complexes, making the scavenged iron available to the cells. We show that inactivation of the fes gene causes iron limitation on rich medium plates and a parallel SpoT-dependent increase of the ppGpp pool, as judged by the induction of the iron-regulated fiu::lacZ fusion and the repression of the stringently controlled P1(rrnB)::lacZ fusion respectively. We further show, by direct ppGpp assays, that iron starvation in liquid medium produces a SpoT-dependent increase of the ppGpp pool, strongly suggesting a role for iron in the balance of the two activities of SpoT, synthesis and hydrolysis of (p)ppGpp. Finally, we present evidence that ppGpp exerts direct or indirect positive control on iron uptake, suggesting a simple homeostatic regulatory circuit: iron limitation leads to an increased ppGpp pool, which increases the expression of iron uptake genes, thereby alleviating the limitation.