Co-administration of chicken IL-2 alleviates clinical signs and replication of the ILTV chicken embryo origin vaccine by pre-activating natural killer cells and cytotoxic T lymphocytes.

IMPORTANCE: Chickens immunized with the infectious laryngotracheitis chicken embryo origin (CEO) vaccine (Medivac, PT Medion Farma Jaya) experience adverse reactions, hindering its safety and effective use in poultry flocks. To improve the effect of the vaccine, we sought to find a strategy to alleviate the respiratory reactions associated with the vaccine. Here, we confirmed that co-administering the CEO vaccine with chIL-2 by oral delivery led to significant alleviation of the vaccine reactions in chickens after immunization. Furthermore, we found that the co-administration of chIL-2 with the CEO vaccine reduced the clinical signs of the CEO vaccine while enhancing natural killer cells and cytotoxic T lymphocyte response to decrease viral loads in their tissues, particularly in the trachea and conjunctiva. Importantly, we demonstrated that the chIL-2 treatment can ameliorate the replication of the CEO vaccine without compromising its effectiveness. This study provides new insights into further applications of chIL-2 and a promising strategy for alleviating the adverse reaction of vaccines.

The care status and factors affecting antiretroviral therapy timing for people living with HIV: a retrospective cohort study in Shandong Province, China.

This study described the care status of People Living with HIV (PLWH) including antiretroviral therapy (ART) and viral suppression from 2018 to 2020. We recognized that immediate ART was associated with improved viral suppression. Therefore, we also aimed to explore the factors affecting the early initiation of ART. We initiated a retrospective cohort study to evaluate the care status of people living with HIV in Shandong Province. From 2018 to 2020, patients infected by homosexual transmission in particular had a higher ART rate (78.82%, 79.69%, and 87.72%, respectively). Of PLWH who received ART, 79.57%, 77.63%, and 67.71% achieved viral suppression, respectively. However, COVID-19 may affect the rate of ART and viral suppression, which we need to explore in our research. From 2018 to 2020, the proportion of immediate antiretroviral therapy within 30 days of diagnosis increased from 48.12% to 65.42%. Multivariate logistic regression demonstrated that patients with junior college degree or above (OR, 1.39 [95%CI, 1.12-1.73]) and key population or medical institutions (OR, 3.62 [95%CI, 2.18-6.16]; OR, 3.88 [95%CI, 2.33-6.59]) were substantially likely to receive ART immediately, while patients outside the province (OR, 0.60 [95%CI, 0.50-0.73]) were less likely to receive ART immediately.

Longitudinal trajectories of depressive symptoms: the role of multimorbidity, mobility and subjective memory.

BACKGROUND: The high prevalence of depression among older people in China places a heavy burden on the health system. Multimorbidity, mobility limitation and subjective memory impairment are found to be risk indicators for depression. However, most studies on this topic focused on depression at a single point in time, ignoring the dynamic changes in depressive symptoms and the relationship between the trajectories and these three conditions. Therefore, we aimed to identify distinct trajectories of depressive symptoms in older people and investigate their associations with multimorbidity, mobility limitation and subjective memory impairment. METHODS: Data was drawn from China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study conducted during 2011-2018. A total of 5196 participants who completed 4 visits, conducted every 2-3 years were included in this study. Group-based trajectory modeling was conducted to identify distinct trajectories of depressive symptoms z-scores. Multinomial logistic regression was used to investigate the relationships. RESULTS: Four distinct trajectories of depressive symptoms z-scores were identified, labeled as persistently low symptoms (68.69%, n = 3569), increasing symptoms (12.14%, n = 631), decreasing symptoms (14.05%, n = 730) and persistently high symptoms (5.12%, n = 266). Participants with multimorbidity had unfavorable trajectories of depressive symptoms compared with those without multimorbidity, with adjusted odds ratios (95% CIs) of 1.40 (1.15, 1.70), 1.59 (1.33, 1.90) and 2.19 (1.65, 2.90) for the increasing symptoms, decreasing symptoms and persistently high symptoms, respectively. We also observed a similar trend among participants with mobility limitations. Compared with participants who had poor subjective memory, participants with excellent/very good/good subjective memory had a lower risk of developing unfavorable trajectories of depressive symptoms. The adjusted odds ratios (95% CIs) of the increasing symptoms, decreasing symptoms and persistently high symptoms were 0.54 (0.40, 0.72), 0.50 (0.38, 0.65) and 0.48 (0.31, 0.73), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Multimorbidity, mobility limitation and subjective memory impairment were found to be potential risk factors for unfavorable depression trajectories.

Comparative efficacy and safety of glucose-lowering drugs in children and adolescents with type 2 diabetes: A systematic review and network meta-analysis.

Objective: Type 2 diabetes is more common in adults, but is becoming the major concern in children and adolescent recently. This study aimed to provide additional pharmaceutical management for children and adolescents with type 2 diabetes by assessing the efficacy and safety of several glucose-lowering drugs. Methods: Searches were performed in PubMed, Medline, Ovid, Cochrane Controlled Register of Trials (CENTRAL), and ClinicalTrials.gov that reported the efficacy and safety of drugs for children and adolescents with type 2 diabetes. Pooled effects were calculated by frequentist fixed effects network meta-analyses and additive network meta-analyses. Results: A total of 12 trials assessing eight glucose-lowering drugs were included, which compose of seven trials with monotherapy and five trials with combination therapies. Network meta-analysis results showed compared to placebo, saxagliptin+metformin (mean difference (MD) -1.91% [-2.85%, -0.97%]), liraglutide+metformin (MD -1.45% [-1.65%, -1.26%]), and liraglutide (MD -0.90% [-1.35%, -0.45%]) were the top 3 drugs that significantly reduced hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c). Sitagliptin+metformin, dapagliflozin, exenatide-2mcg, linagliptin-5mg, metformin, exenatide-5/10mcg, glimepiride, and sitagliptin also showed significant reduction in HbA1c. There were no significant differences between treatments in the incidence of adverse events, except that liraglutide+metformin had significant adverse effect such as abdominal pain. In addition, dapagliflozin, sitagliptin+metformin, and saxagliptin+metformin showed better efficacy compared with FDA-approved drugs. Conclusions: The top 10 treatments of type 2 diabetes in children and adolescents aged 10-17 years were saxagliptin+metformin, liraglutide+metformin, liraglutide, dapagliflozin, exenatide-2 mcg, sitagliptin+metformin, linagliptin-5 mg, linagliptin-1 mg, metformin, and exenatide-5/10 mcg. Systematic Review Registration: https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?RecordID=284897, identifier CRD42021284897.

Inhibition of canine distemper virus replication by blocking pyrimidine nucleotide synthesis with A77 1726, the active metabolite of the anti-inflammatory drug leflunomide.

Canine distemper virus (CDV) is the aetiological agent that causes canine distemper (CD). Currently, no antiviral drugs have been approved for CD treatment. A77 1726 is the active metabolite of the anti-rheumatoid arthritis (RA) drug leflunomide. It inhibits the activity of Janus kinases (JAKs) and dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (DHO-DHase), a rate-limiting enzyme in de novo pyrimidine nucleotide synthesis. A77 1726 also inhibits the activity of p70 S6 kinase (S6K1), a serine/threonine kinase that phosphorylates and activates carbamoyl-phosphate synthetase (CAD), a second rate-limiting enzyme in the de novo pathway of pyrimidine nucleotide synthesis. Our present study focuses on the ability of A77 1726 to inhibit CDV replication and its underlying mechanisms. Here we report that A77 1726 decreased the levels of the N and M proteins of CDV and lowered the virus titres in the conditioned media of CDV-infected Vero cells. CDV replication was not inhibited by Ruxolitinib (Rux), a JAK-specific inhibitor, but by brequinar sodium (BQR), a DHO-DHase-specific inhibitor, and PF-4708671, an S6K1-specific inhibitor. Addition of exogenous uridine, which restores intracellular pyrimidine nucleotide levels, blocked the antiviral activity of A77 1726, BQR and PF-4708671. A77 1726 and PF-4708671 inhibited the activity of S6K1 in CDV-infected Vero cells, as evidenced by the decreased levels of CAD and S6 phosphorylation. S6K1 knockdown suppressed CDV replication and enhanced the antiviral activity of A77 1726. These observations collectively suggest that the antiviral activity of A77 1726 against CDV is mediated by targeting pyrimidine nucleotide synthesis via inhibiting DHO-DHase activity and S6K1-mediated CAD activation.

Establishing a Multicolor Flow Cytometry to Characterize Cellular Immune Response in Chickens Following H7N9 Avian Influenza Virus Infection.

Avian influenza virus (AIV) emerged and has continued to re-emerge, continuously posing great threats to animal and human health. The detection of hemagglutination inhibition (HI) or virus neutralization antibodies (NA) is essential for assessing immune protection against AIV. However, the HI/NA-independent immune protection is constantly observed in vaccines' development against H7N9 subtype AIV and other subtypes in chickens and mammals, necessitating the analysis of the cellular immune response. Here, we established a multi-parameter flow cytometry to examine the innate and adaptive cellular immune responses in chickens after intranasal infection with low pathogenicity H7N9 AIV. This assay allowed us to comprehensively define chicken macrophages, dendritic cells, and their MHC-II expression, NK cells, γδ T cells, B cells, and distinct T cell subsets in steady state and during infection. We found that NK cells and KUL01+ cells significantly increased after H7N9 infection, especially in the lung, and the KUL01+ cells upregulated MHC-II and CD11c expression. Additionally, the percentages and numbers of γδ T cells and CD8 T cells significantly increased and exhibited an activated phenotype with significant upregulation of CD25 expression in the lung but not in the spleen and blood. Furthermore, B cells showed increased in the lung but decreased in the blood and spleen in terms of the percentages or/and numbers, suggesting these cells may be recruited from the periphery after H7N9 infection. Our study firstly disclosed that H7N9 infection induced local and systemic cellular immune responses in chickens, the natural host of AIV, and that the flow cytometric assay developed in this study is useful for analyzing the cellular immune responses to AIVs and other avian infectious diseases and defining the correlates of immune protection.

In Vitro and In Vivo Antiviral Activity of Gingerenone A on Influenza A Virus Is Mediated by Targeting Janus Kinase 2.

Janus kinase (JAK) inhibitors have been developed as novel immunomodulatory drugs and primarily used for treating rheumatoid arthritis and other inflammatory diseases. Recent studies have suggested that this category of anti-inflammatory drugs could be potentially useful for the control of inflammation "storms" in respiratory virus infections. In addition to their role in regulating immune cell functions, JAK1 and JAK2 have been recently identified as crucial cellular factors involved in influenza A virus (IAV) replication and could be potentially targeted for antiviral therapy. Gingerenone A (Gin A) is a compound derived from ginger roots and a dual inhibitor of JAK2 and p70 S6 kinase (S6K1). Our present study aimed to determine the antiviral activity of Gin A on influenza A virus (IAV) and to understand its mechanisms of action. Here, we reported that Gin A suppressed the replication of three IAV subtypes (H1N1, H5N1, H9N2) in four cell lines. IAV replication was also inhibited by Ruxolitinib (Rux), a JAK inhibitor, but not by PF-4708671, an S6K1 inhibitor. JAK2 overexpression enhanced H5N1 virus replication and attenuated Gin A-mediated antiviral activity. In vivo experiments revealed that Gin A treatment suppressed IAV replication in the lungs of H5N1 virus-infected mice, alleviated their body weight loss, and prolonged their survival. Our study suggests that Gin A restricts IAV replication by inhibiting JAK2 activity; Gin A could be potentially useful for the control of influenza virus infections.

A77 1726, the active metabolite of the anti-rheumatoid arthritis drug leflunomide, inhibits influenza A virus replication in vitro and in vivo by inhibiting the activity of Janus kinases.

The newly reassorted IAV subtypes from zoonotic reservoirs respond poorly to current vaccines and antiviral therapy. There is an unmet need in developing novel antiviral drugs for better control of IAV infection. The cellular factors that are crucial for virus replication have been sought as novel molecular targets for antiviral therapy. Recent studies have shown that Janus kinases (JAK), JAK1, and JAK2, play an important role in IAV replication. Leflunomide is an anti-inflammatory drug primarily used for treating rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Prior studies suggest that A77 1726, the active metabolite of leflunomide, inhibits the activity of JAK1 and JAK3. Our current study aims to determine if A77 1726 can function as a JAK inhibitor to control IAV infection. Here, we report that A77 1726 inhibited the replication of three IAV subtypes（H5N1, H1N1, H9N2）in three cell types (chicken embryonic fibroblasts, A549, and MDCK). A77 1726 inhibited JAK1, JAK2, and STAT3 tyrosine phosphorylation. Similar observations were made with Ruxolitinib (Rux), a JAK-specific inhibitor. JAK2 overexpression enhanced H5N1 virus replication and compromised the antiviral activity of A77 1726. Leflunomide inhibited virus replication in the lungs of IAV-infected mice, alleviated their body weight loss, and prolonged their survival. Our study demonstrates for the first time the ability of A77 1726 to inhibit JAK2 activity and suggests that inhibition of JAK activity contributes to its antiviral activity.

The PB2 and M genes are critical for the superiority of genotype S H9N2 virus to genotype H in optimizing viral fitness of H5Nx and H7N9 avian influenza viruses in mice.

Genotype S H9N2 avian influenza virus, which has been predominant in China since 2010, contributed its entire internal gene cassette to the genesis of novel reassortant influenza viruses, including H5Nx, H7N9 and H10N8 viruses that pose great threat to poultry and humans. A key feature of the genotype S H9N2 virus is the substitution of G1-like M and PB2 genes for the earlier F/98-like M and PB2 of genotype H virus. However, how this gene substitution has influenced viral adaptability of emerging influenza viruses in mammals remains unclear. We report here that reassortant H5Nx and H7N9 viruses with the genotype S internal gene cassette displayed enhanced replication and virulence over those with genotype H internal gene cassette in cell cultures as well as in the mouse models. We showed that the G1-like PB2 gene was associated with increased polymerase activity and improved nuclear accumulation compared with the F/98-like counterpart, while the G1-like M gene facilitated effective translocation of RNP to cytoplasm. Our findings suggest that the genotype S H9N2 internal gene cassette, which possesses G1-like M and PB2 genes, is superior to that of genotype H, in optimizing viral fitness, and thus have implications for assessing the potential risk of these gene introductions to generate emerging influenza viruses.

The PB2 and M genes of genotype S H9N2 virus contribute to the enhanced fitness of H5Nx and H7N9 avian influenza viruses in chickens.

Genotype S H9N2 viruses frequently donate their internal genes to facilitate the generation of novel influenza viruses, e.g., H5N6, H7N9, and H10N8, which have caused human infection. Genotype S was originated from the replacement of F/98-like M and PB2 genes of the genotype H with those from G1-like lineage. However, whether this gene substitution will influence the viral fitness of emerging influenza viruses remains unclear. We found that H5Nx and H7N9 viruses with G1-like PB2 or M gene exhibited higher virulence and replication than those with F/98-like PB2 or M in chickens. We also determined the functional significance of G1-like PB2 in conferring increased polymerase activity and improved nucleus transportation efficiency, and facilitated RNP nuclear export by G1-like M. Our results suggest that G1-like PB2 and M genes optimize viral fitness, and thus play a crucial role in the genesis of emerging influenza viruses that cause rising prevalence in chickens.

Role of c-Jun terminal kinase (JNK) activation in influenza A virus-induced autophagy and replication.

The non-structural protein 1 (NS1) of different influenza A virus (IAV) strains can differentially regulate the activity of c-Jun terminal kinase (JNK) and PI-3 kinase (PI3K). Whether varying JNK and PI3K activation impacts autophagy and IAV replication differently remains uncertain. Here we report that H5N1 (A/mallard/Huadong/S/2005) influenza A virus induced functional autophagy, as evidenced by increased LC3 lipidation and decreased p62 levels, and the presence of autolysosomes in chicken fibroblast cells. H9N2 (A/chicken/Shanghai/F/98) virus weakly induced autophagy, whereas H1N1 virus (A/PR/8/34, PR8) blocked autophagic flux. H5N1 virus activated JNK but inhibited the PI-3 kinase pathway. In contrast, N9N2 virus infection led to modest JNK activation and strong PI-3 kinase activation; whereas H1N1 virus activated the PI-3 kinase pathway but did not activate JNK. SP600125, a JNK inhibitor, inhibited H5N1 virus-induced autophagy and virus replication in a DF-1 chicken fibroblast cell line. Our study uncovered a previously unrecognized role of JNK in IAV replication and autophagy.

Internal Gene Cassette from a Genotype S H9N2 Avian Influenza Virus Attenuates the Pathogenicity of H5 Viruses in Chickens and Mice.

H9N2 avian influenza virus (AIV) of genotype S frequently donate internal genes to facilitate the generation of novel reassortants such as H7N9, H10N8, H5N2 and H5N6 AIVs, posing an enormous threat to both human health and poultry industry. However, the pathogenicity and transmission of reassortant H5 viruses with internal gene cassette of genotype S H9N2-origin in chickens and mice remain unknown. In this study, four H5 reassortants carrying the HA and NA genes from different clades of H5 viruses and the remaining internal genes from an H9N2 virus of the predominant genotype S were generated by reverse genetics. We found that all four H5 reassortant viruses showed attenuated virulence in both chickens and mice, thus leading to increased the mean death times compared to the corresponding parental viruses. Consistently, the polymerase activity and replication ability in mammalian and avian cells, and the cytokine responses in the lungs of chickens and mice were also decreased when compared to their respective parental viruses. Moreover, these reassortants transmitted from birds to birds by direct contact but not by an airborne route. Our data indicate that the internal genes as a whole cassette from genotype S H9N2 viruses play important roles in reducing the pathogenicity of the H5 recombinants in chickens and mice, and might contribute to the circulation in avian or mammalian hosts.

Reassortant H5N1 avian influenza viruses containing PA or NP gene from an H9N2 virus significantly increase the pathogenicity in mice.

Reassortment between different influenza viruses is a crucial way to generate novel influenza viruses with unpredictable virulence and transmissibility, which may threaten the public health. As currently in China, avian influenza viruses (AIVs) of H9N2 and H5N1 subtypes are endemic in poultry in many areas, while they are prone to reassort with each other naturally. In order to evaluate the risk of the reassortment to public health, A/Goose/Jiangsu/k0403/2010 [GS/10(H5N1)] virus was used as a backbone to generate a series of reassortants, each contained a single internal gene derived from the predominant S genotype of the A/Chicken/Jiangsu/WJ57/2012 [WJ/57(H9N2)]. We next assessed the biological characteristics of these assortments, including pathogenicity, replication efficiency and polymerase activity. We found that the parental WJ/57(H9N2) and GS/10(H5N1) viruses displayed high genetic compatibility. Notably, the H5N1 reassortants containing the PA or NP gene from WJ/57(H9N2) virus significantly increased virulence and replication ability in mice, as well as markedly enhanced polymerase activity. Our results indicate that the endemicity of H9N2 and H5N1 in domestic poultry greatly increases the possibility of generating new viruses by reassortment that may pose a great threat to poultry industry and public health.

Methylphenidate modulates sustained attention and cortical activation in survivors of traumatic brain injury: a perfusion fMRI study.

RATIONALE: Methylphenidate (MPH), the most widely prescribed psychostimulant to treat many neuropsychiatric conditions, is reported to improve attention and speed of processing in survivors of traumatic brain injury (TBI). The neural correlate of this efficacy, however, remains unclear. OBJECTIVE: Using perfusion functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) as a biomarker of regional neural activity, the current study aimed to examine the neural correlates of single-dose (0.3 mg/kg) MPH administration in a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled crossover study design. METHODS: Twenty-three individuals with moderate to severe TBI were tested on two occasions approximately 1 week apart. Perfusion fMRI scanning was carried out at rest and while participants performed cognitive tasks requiring sustained attention and working memory. RESULTS: Behaviorally, MPH significantly improved both accuracy and reaction time (RT) in the sustained attention task but only RT in the working memory task. A trend of global reduction of cerebral blood flow by MPH was observed in all task conditions including resting. Voxel-wise whole-brain analysis revealed an interaction effect of drug by condition (MPH-placebo X task-rest) for the sustained attention task in the left posterior superior parietal cortex and parieto-occipital junction (BA 7/19). The magnitude of drug-related deactivation of this area during task performance was correlated with improvement in RT. CONCLUSION: Suppression of activity in this area during task performance may reflect a compensatory mechanism by which MPH ameliorates attention impairments in TBI.

Optical measurement of cerebral hemodynamics and oxygen metabolism in neonates with congenital heart defects.

We employ a hybrid diffuse correlation spectroscopy (DCS) and near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) monitor for neonates with congenital heart disease (n=33). The NIRS-DCS device measured changes during hypercapnia of oxyhemoglobin, deoxyhemoglobin, and total hemoglobin concentrations; cerebral blood flow (rCBF(DCS)); and oxygen metabolism (rCMRO(2)). Concurrent measurements with arterial spin-labeled magnetic resonance imaging (rCBF(ASL-MRI), n=12) cross-validate rCBF(DCS) against rCBF(ASL-MRI), showing good agreement (R=0.7, p=0.01). The study demonstrates use of NIRS-DCS on a critically ill neonatal population, and the results indicate that the optical technology is a promising clinical method for monitoring this population.

Resting cerebral blood flow alterations in chronic traumatic brain injury: an arterial spin labeling perfusion FMRI study.

Non-invasive measurement of resting state cerebral blood flow (CBF) may reflect alterations of brain structure and function after traumatic brain injury (TBI). However, previous imaging studies of resting state brain in chronic TBI have been limited by several factors, including measurement in relative rather than absolute units, use of crude spatial registration methods, exclusion of subjects with substantial focal lesions, and exposure to ionizing radiation, which limits repeated assessments. This study aimed to overcome those obstacles by measuring absolute CBF with an arterial spin labeling perfusion fMRI technique, and using an image preprocessing protocol that is optimized for brains with mixed diffuse and focal injuries characteristic of moderate and severe TBI. Resting state CBF was quantified in 27 individuals with moderate to severe TBI in the chronic stage, and 22 demographically matched healthy controls. In addition to global CBF reductions in the TBI subjects, more prominent regional hypoperfusion was found in the posterior cingulate cortices, the thalami, and multiple locations in the frontal cortices. Diffuse injury, as assessed by tensor-based morphometry, was mainly associated with reduced CBF in the posterior cingulate cortices and the thalami, where the greatest volume losses were detected. Hypoperfusion in superior and middle frontal cortices, in contrast, was associated with focal lesions. These results suggest that structural lesions, both focal and diffuse, are the main contributors to the absolute CBF alterations seen in chronic TBI, and that CBF may serve as a tool to assess functioning neuronal volume. We also speculate that resting reductions in posterior cingulate perfusion may reflect alterations in the default-mode network, and may contribute to the attentional deficits common in TBI.

Imaging brain fatigue from sustained mental workload: an ASL perfusion study of the time-on-task effect.

During sustained periods of a taxing cognitive workload, humans typically display time-on-task (TOT) effects, in which performance gets steadily worse over the period of task engagement. Arterial spin labeling (ASL) perfusion functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) was used in this study to investigate the neural correlates of TOT effects in a group of 15 subjects as they performed a 20-min continuous psychomotor vigilance test (PVT). Subjects displayed significant TOT effects, as seen in progressively slower reaction times and significantly increased mental fatigue ratings after the task. Perfusion data showed that the PVT activates a right lateralized fronto-parietal attentional network in addition to the basal ganglia and sensorimotor cortices. The fronto-parietal network was less active during post-task rest compared to pre-task rest, and regional CBF decrease in this network correlated with performance decline. These results demonstrate the persistent effects of cognitive fatigue in the fronto-parietal network after a period of heavy mental work and indicate the critical role of this attentional network in mediating TOT effects. Furthermore, resting regional CBF in the thalamus and right middle frontal gyrus prior to task onset was predictive of subjects' subsequent performance decline, suggesting that resting CBF quantified by ASL perfusion fMRI may be a useful indicator of performance potential and a marker of the level of fatigue in the neural attentional system.

Serotonin transporter genotype modulates amygdala activity during mood regulation.

Recent studies have implicated the short allele of the serotonin transporter-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) in depression vulnerability, particularly in the context of stress. Several neuroimaging studies have shown that 5-HTTLPR genotype predicts amygdala reactivity to negatively valenced stimuli, suggesting a mechanism whereby the short allele confers depression risk. The current study investigated whether 5-HTTLPR genotype similarly affects neural activity during an induced sad mood and during recovery from sad mood. Participants were 15 homozygous short (S) and 15 homozygous long (L) individuals. Regional cerebral blood flow was measured with perfusion functional magnetic resonance imaging during four scanning blocks: baseline, sad mood, mood recovery and following return to baseline. Comparing mood recovery to baseline, both whole brain analyses and template-based region-of-interest analyses revealed greater amygdala activity for the S vs the L-group. There were no significant amygdala differences found during the induced sad mood. These results demonstrate the effect of the S allele on amygdala activity during intentional mood regulation and suggest that amygdala hyperactivity during recovery from a sad mood may be one mechanism by which the S allele confers depression risk.

Early parental care is important for hippocampal maturation: evidence from brain morphology in humans.

The effects of early life experience on later brain structure and function have been studied extensively in animals, yet the relationship between childhood experience and normal brain development in humans remains largely unknown. Using a unique longitudinal data set including ecologically valid in-home measures of early experience during childhood (at age 4 and 8 years) and high-resolution structural brain imaging during adolescence (mean age 14 years), we examined the effects on later brain morphology of two dimensions of early experience: parental nurturance and environmental stimulation. Parental nurturance at age 4 predicts the volume of the left hippocampus in adolescence, with better nurturance associated with smaller hippocampal volume. In contrast, environmental stimulation did not correlate with hippocampal volume. Moreover, the association between hippocampal volume and parental nurturance disappears at age 8, supporting the existence of a sensitive developmental period for brain maturation. These findings indicate that variation in normal childhood experience is associated with differences in brain morphology, and hippocampal volume is specifically associated with early parental nurturance. Our results provide neuroimaging evidence supporting the important role of warm parental care during early childhood for brain maturation.

Arterial spin-labeled perfusion MRI in basic and clinical neuroscience.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Arterial spin labeling (ASL) provides an endogenous and completely noninvasive tracer for the quantification of regional cerebral blood flow (CBF) with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Although the measurement of CBF has obvious utility in cerebrovascular disorders, because CBF is closely coupled to neural metabolism, ASL perfusion MRI has a broad range of potential applications as a biomarker of regional brain function in basic and clinical neuroscience. RECENT FINDINGS: Over the past few years, ASL technology has improved considerably and the utility of ASL perfusion MRI as a diagnostic and research tool has been demonstrated. This review briefly covers ASL methodologies and clinical applications, while expanding on the use of ASL in human neuroscience research to elucidate patterns of resting brain function that correlate with genotype or phenotype (trait effects), or in response to exogenous manipulations of brain function with pharmacological agents or psychological tasks (state effects). SUMMARY: ASL perfusion MRI provides a versatile biomarker of regional brain function that can be acquired as part of a multimodal MRI examination. Because ASL quantifies a physiological parameter, it should be useful for multisite or longitudinal studies.