Mitochondrial genome characteristics of six Phylloscopus species and their phylogenetic implication.

The mitochondrial genomes of six Phylloscopus species-small insectivores belonging to the Phylloscopidae family-were obtained using the Illumina sequencing platform. The mitogenomes were closed circular molecules 16,922-17,007 bp in size, containing 13 protein-coding genes, 22 tRNA genes, two rRNA genes, and two control regions (CR1 and remnant CR2). The gene orders were conserved in 35 sampled Phylloscopus mitogenomes in the GenBank database, with a gene rearrangement of cytb-trnT-CR1-trnP-nad6-trnE-remnant CR2-trnF-rrnS. The average base compositions of the six Phylloscopus mitogenomes were 29.43% A, 32.75% C, 14.68% G, and 23.10% T, with the A+T content slightly higher than that of G+C. ATG and TAA were the most frequent initiating and terminating codons, respectively. Several conserved boxes were identified in CR1, including C-string in domain I; F, E, D, and C boxes, as well as bird similarity and B boxes, in domain II; and CSB1 in domain III. Tandem repeats were observed in remnant CR2 of the Phylloscopus fuscatus and Phylloscopus proregulus mitogenomes. A phylogenetic analysis with maximum likelihood (ML) and Bayesian inference (BI) methods, based on 13 protein-coding genes and two rRNA genes, indicated that the Phylloscopus species was divided into two larger clades, with a splitting time approximately 11.06 million years ago (mya). The taxa of Phylloscopus coronatus/Phylloscopus burkii and Phylloscopus inornatus/P. proregulus were located at the basal position of the different clades. The phylogenetic result of the cox1 gene showed that Seicercus was nested within Phylloscopus. The complete set of mitogenomes of the Phylloscopus species provides potentially useful resources for the further exploration of the taxonomic status and phylogenetic history of Phylloscopidae.

Breeding Population Dynamics of Relict Gull (Larus relictus) in Hongjian Nur, Shaanxi, China.

Hongjian Nur is an important breeding and stopover area for the globally endangered Relict gull (Larus relictus). This is where the species was first found in 2000. The breeding population of this species was monitored over the long term by directly counting nests from 2001 to 2020 in Hongjian Nur, Shaanxi, China. Our results suggest that breeding pairs increased rapidly, from 87 nests in 2001 to 7708 nests in 2010; at this point, the breeding population accounted for more than 85% of the global total, and was at the highest value during the past two decades. Subsequently, breeding pairs continued to decrease dramatically and reached a minimum number of 2054 nests in 2015, approximately 70% less than at their peak. In view of this situation, breeding islets were restored in 2014 and 2017, and the breeding population recovered slowly. Due to the changing ecological environment, breeding islets showed the same instability as the breeding population. Our conclusions support previous research, highlighting the importance of water level.

Comparative mitogenomics of the genus Motacilla (Aves, Passeriformes) and its phylogenetic implications.

The genus Motacilla belongs to Motacillidae (Passeriformes), where mitochondrial features are poorly understood and phylogeny is controversial. Whole mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) data and large taxon sampling are considered to be ideal strategies to obtain this information. We generated four complete mitogenomes of M.flava, M.cinerea, M.alba and Dendronanthusindicus, and made comparative analyses of Motacilla species combined with mitogenome data from GenBank, and then reconstructed phylogenetic trees based on 37 mitochondrial genes. The mitogenomes of four mitogenome sequences exhibited the same gene order observed in most Passeriformes species. Comparative analyses were performed among all six sampled Motacilla mitogenomes. The complete mitogenomes showed A-skew and C-skew. Most protein-coding genes (PCGs) start with an ATG codon and terminate with a TAA codon. The secondary structures of RNAs were similar among Motacilla and Dendronanthus. All tRNAs except for trnS(agy) could be folded into classic clover-leaf structures. Three domains and several conserved boxes were detected. Phylogenetic analysis of 90 mitogenomes of Passeriformes using maximum likelihood (ML) and Bayesian inference (BI) revealed that Motacilla was a monophyletic group. Among Motacilla species, M.flava and M.tschutschensis showed closer relationships, and M.cinerea was located in a basal position within Motacilla. These data provide important information for better understanding the mitogenomic characteristics and phylogeny of Motacilla.

Differences in Brain Functional Networks of Executive Function Between Cantonese-Mandarin Bilinguals and Mandarin Monolinguals.

It remains controversial whether long-term logographic-logographic bilingual experience shapes the special brain functional subnetworks underlying different components of executive function (EF). To address this question, this study explored the differences in the functional connections underlying EF between the Cantonese-Mandarin bilinguals and Mandarin monolinguals. 31 Cantonese-Mandarin bilinguals and 31 Mandarin monolinguals were scanned in a 3-T magnetic resonance scanner at rest. 4 kinds of behavioral tasks of EF were tested. Network-based statistics (NBS) was performed to compare the connectomes of fronto-parietal (FP) and cingulo-opercular (CO) network between groups. The results showed that the bilinguals had stronger connectivity than monolinguals in a subnetwork located in the CO network rather than the FP network. The identified differential subnetwork referred to as the CO subnetwork contained 9 nodes and 10 edges, in which the center node was the left mid-insula with a degree centrality of 5. The functional connectivity of the CO subnetwork was significantly negatively correlated with interference effect in bilinguals. The results suggested that long-term Cantonese-Mandarin bilingual experience was associated with stronger functional connectivity underlying inhibitory control in the CO subnetwork.

The first mitogenome of Lesser Whitethroat, Sylvia curruca blythi Ticehurst & Whistler, 1933 (Passeriformes: Sylviidae) and its phylogenetic implications for the genus Sylvia.

The complete mitogenome of the Lesser Whitethroat, Sylvia curruca blythi Ticehurst & Whistler, 1933 was determined, which belongs to Sylviidae, Passeriformes. The mitogenome had a length of 17,959 bp and consisted of 37 genes including 13 PCGs, 2 ribosomal RNAs (rRNA) genes, and 22 transfer RNAs (tRNA) genes. In addition, two control regions (CRs) were also existed in the mitogenome, with Sylvioidea typcial gene arrangement of cytb-trnT-CR1-trnP-nad6-trnE-CR2-trnF-rrnS. Phylogenetic analysis using 37 mitochondrial genes of 17 related species revealed that S. c. blythi had a closer relationship with S. crassirostris, and the monophyly of Sylvia was also recovered. The mitogenome data of S. c. blythi would provide useful resources for further studying the evolution of Sylvia and the subspecies taxonomic revision of S. curruca intraspecific.

Mitogenome of emAlaudala/em emcheleensis/em (Passeriformes: Alaudidae) and comparative analyses of Sylvioidea mitogenomes.

To gain a better understanding of mitogenome features and phylogenetic relationships in Sylvioidea, a superfamily of Passerida, suborder Passeri, Passeriformes, the whole mitogenome of Alaudala cheleensis Swinhoe (Alaudidae) was sequenced, a comparative mitogenomic analysis of 18 Sylvioidea species was carried out, and finally, a phylogeny was reconstructed based on the mitochondrial dataset. Gene order of the A. cheleensis mitogenome was similar to that of other Sylvioidea species, including the gene rearrangement of cytb-trnT-CR1-trnP-nad6-trnE-remnant CR2-trnF-rrnS. There was slightly higher A+T content than that of G+C in the mitogenome, with an obvious C skew. The ATG codon initiated all protein-coding genes, while six terminating codons were used. The secondary structure of rrnS contained three domains and 47 helices, whereas rrnL included six domains and 60 helices. All tRNAs could be folded into a classic clover-leaf secondary structure except for trnS (AGY). The CR1 could be divided into three domains, including several conserved boxes (C-string, F, E, D, C and B-box, Bird similarity box, CSB1). Comparative analyses within Sylvioidea mitogenomes showed that most mitochondrial features were consistent with that of the A. cheleensis mitogenome. The basal position of the Alaudidae within the Sylvioidea in our phylogenetic analyses is consistent with other recent studies.

Genome-wide analyses of the relict gull (Larus relictus): insights and evolutionary implications.

BACKGROUND: The relict gull (Larus relictus), was classified as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List and is a first-class national protected bird in China. Genomic resources for L. relictus are lacking, which limits the study of its evolution and its conservation. RESULTS: In this study, based on the Illumina and PacBio sequencing platforms, we successfully assembled the genome of L. relictus, one of the few known reference genomes in genus Larus. The size of the final assembled genome was 1.21 Gb, with a contig N50 of 8.11 Mb. A total of 18,454 genes were predicted from the assembly results, with 16,967 (91.94%) of these genes annotated. The genome contained 92.52 Mb of repeat sequence, accounting for 7.63% of the assembly. A phylogenetic tree was constructed using 4902 single-copy orthologous genes, which showed L. relictus had closest relative of L. smithsonianus, with divergence time of 14.7 Mya estimated between of them. PSMC analyses indicated that L. relictus had been undergoing a long-term population decline during 0.01-0.1 Mya with a small effective population size fom 8800 to 2200 individuals. CONCLUSIONS: This genome will be a valuable genomic resource for a range of genomic and conservation studies of L. relictus and will help to establish a foundation for further studies investigating whether the breeding population is a complex population. As the species is threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation, actions to protect L. relictus are suggested to alleviate the fragmentation of breeding populations.

Characterization of the complete mitogenomes of Baillon's Crake Porzana pusilla and phylogenetic analysis.

The complete mitochondrial genome of the Baillon's Crake Porzana pusilla (Gruiformes: Rallidae) are sequenced and annotated, which contained 37 typical genes. The length of the complete mitochondrial genome is 16,966 bp (GenBank No. MW043485), with As, Ts, Cs, Gs, and AT content of the mitochondrial genome is 32.1, 23.2, 30.9, 13.8, and 55.3%, respectively. All protein-coding genes started with ATN except COX1 and ND5, which start with GTG, and all protein-coding genes end with a complete triplet codon (TAA, AGG, AGA, and TAG), except COX3, which ends with an incomplete T. The ND3 gene of P. pusilla with an extra C nucleotide in 174 site. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the new sequenced species of P. pusilla was closer to the clade of Porzana fusca and Porzana paykullii, and all three Porzana are clustered into one branch.

The Complete Mitogenome of Falco amurensis (Falconiformes, Falconidae), and a Comparative Analysis of Genus Falco.

In this study, we sequenced the complete mitogenome of Falco amurensis (Falconiformes, Falconidae). The F. amurensis mitogenome is 17,464 bp long, and contains 37 genes, including 13 protein-coding genes (PCGs), two rRNAs, 22 tRNAs, and two non-coding regions (control region and pseudo-control region). Most PCGs initiate with ATG and terminate with TAA. atp8 exhibits the highest evolutionary rate, with cox1 showing the lowest. rrnS and rrnL contain three domains with 46 helices and six domains with 59 helices, respectively. All tRNAs have a typical cloverleaf secondary structure, except that trnS(agy) lacks the dihydrouracil arm. The control region is located between trnT and trnP and the pseudo-control between trnE and trnF. Phylogenetic relationships of 23 species from Falconiformes were analyzed based on the nucleotide sequences of the 13 PCGs and two rRNAs. The results support Falco as a monophyletic taxon, and F. amurensis has a close relationship with the clade containing F. cherrug/F. rusticolus/F. peregrinus.

Characterization of the mitogenomes for two sympatric breeding species in Recurvirostridae (Charadriiformes) and their phylogenetic implications.

Recurvirostridae is a family of Charadriiformes that displays an amazing amount of characterization at evolutionary level. The mitogenomes of Himantopus himantopus and Recurvirostra avosetta are 17,378 bp and 16,856 bp in size, respectively. Both two mitogenomes reveal the same gene order and genomic organization to that of typical avian mtDNA. The first conserved block with two interrupted poly-C and four long terminal repeats with 140 bp are present in H. himantopus control region. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that Recurvirostridae (H. himantopus and R. avosetta) has the closest relationship with Haematopodidae. We supported that Stercorariidea is a sister group to (Alcidae (Laridae, Sternidae)), and suggested that the status of Larus vegae should be further investigated.

The mitogenomes of Gelochelidon nilotica and Sterna hirundo (Charadriiformes, Sternidae) and their phylogenetic implications.

Gelochelidon nilotica and Sterna hirundo are two sympatric breeding species. The mitogenomes of G. nilotica and S. hirundo are 16,748 bp and 16,707 bp in size. Both two mitogenomes reveal the same gene order and genomic organization to that of typical avian mtDNA. The first conserved blocks with a interrupted poly-C are present in the two species control regions, but not existed in S. albifrons. Seventeen and 11 simple sequence repeats are found in G. nilotica and S. hirundo, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that Sternidae has the closest relationship with Laridae. We supported that Stercorariidea is a sister group to (Alcidae (Laridae, Sternidae)), G. nilotica is genetically most related to S. hirundo (all belonged to Black cap species), but distant with S. albifrons (White blaze species) in kinship, and suggested that the status of Larus vegae should be further investigated.

Altruistic sharing behavior in children: Role of theory of mind and inhibitory control.

This study aimed to assess altruistic sharing behavior in children aged 3 to 5, 6 to 8, and 9 to 11 years and to explore the involvement of potential cognitive mechanisms, namely theory of mind (ToM) and inhibitory control. A total of 158 children completed a dictator game with stickers as incentives. ToM was evaluated using a false belief task in preschoolers and the Strange Story Test in school-age children. Inhibitory control was assessed in preschoolers with the Day-Night task and in older children with the Stroop Color-Word Test. The result was that 48.10% of children aged 3 to 5 years decided to share, and the percentage rose significantly with increasing age. The difference in altruism level in children who decided to share among the three age groups was nonsignificant. These results suggest that mechanisms underlying the decision to share or not and altruistic behavior may be different. No significant linear relations were found between cognitive processes (i.e., ToM and inhibitory control) and sharing behavior. Surprisingly, 9- to 11-year-olds who shared 3 of 10 stickers performed worse in inhibitory control than did those who shared any other number of stickers. In conclusion, the proportion of children who decided to share, but not the level of altruism, increased with age. ToM was not involved in altruistic sharing, whereas inhibitory control may play a role when deciding how much to share.

Complete mitochondrial genome of Relict Gull, Larus relictus (Charadriiformes: Laridae).

The complete mitochondrial genome sequence of Larus relictus was 16,586-bp long, containing 13 protein-coding genes (PCGs), 22 tRNA genes, 2 rRNA genes, and a control region. Most PCGs begin with the typical ATN start codon with the exception of COI and ND5 genes, which use GTG as the initiation codon. Stop codons AGG, TAG, TAA and AGA are present in the PCGs; exceptions are COIII and ND4, which possess incomplete termination codons (T), and ND3, in which one extra C nucleotide is found. Secondary structure prediction of the 22 tRNA genes revealed the absence of the DHU arm in tRNA(Ser)((AGN)). Seven conserved sequence box elements, as well as the origin of H-strand replication (OH) and bidirectional light- and heavy-strand transcription promoters (LSP/HSP), are found in control region.

Preliminary study of genetic diversity and population structure of the Relict Gull Larus relictus (Charadriiformes Laridae) using mitochondrial and nuclear genes.

The genetic diversity and the population history of the Relict Gull (Larus relictus) were studied based on the sequences of two mitochondrial genes (Cyt b and ND2) and one nuclear gene (the third intron of the Z-linked muscle-specific kinase gene [MUSK]) from 47 individuals. The results showed that the population expresses very low genetic diversity while lacking large geographical population. Demographic history analysis suggested that population expansion might have been recent and that the average estimated expansion time of L. relictus is from 0.09 to 0.23 Ma BP. Whether the other three breeding subpopulations are involved in the Ordos breeding subpopulation, require further study with more effective molecular markers. The species is threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation, and actions to protect it are suggested to improve the population fragmentation of breeding.

Structural characteristics of the Relict Gull (Larus relictus) mitochondrial DNA control region and its comparison to other Laridae.

The structure of the mitochondrial DNA control region in the Relict Gull (Larus relictus) was predicted and compared with data from the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) on five other gulls. The results showed that the control regions of the six gulls comprise three domains. Sequences of CSB-1-like (domain I) and CSB-1 (domain III) in L. relictus have the highest similarity with those in the other five gulls. The insertion fragments are located in downstream domain I of L. ridibundus, L. brunnicephalus, and L. saundersi. Seven conserved sequence boxes (additional box, F-box, E-box, D-box, C-box, bird-similarity-box, and B-box) are located in domain II in all six gulls. It is suggested that the CSB-2/3 sequence, the origin of H-strand replication, and bidirectional light- and heavy-strand transcription promoters in domain III of L. relictus have some distinguishing features to those of other gulls. Some repeat units are contained in the 3' end of the control region in the five gulls; however, no repeat units are found in the sequence CAAACAACAAA in L. relictus. The distribution of nucleotide diversity analysis will provide the useful information on the selected DNA fragment within the control region for genetic analyses among gulls.

Sequencing complete mitochondrial genome of Lanius sphenocercus sphenocercus (Passeriformes: Laniidae) using Illunima HiSeq 2500.

Using an Illumina platform, we sequenced the complete mitochondrial genome of Lanius sphenocercus sphenocercus to an average coverage of 1669.5×. We performed a de novo assembly using SOAPdenovo2 and obtained the total mitogenome with 16,833 bp in length. Most PCGs begin with the typical ATG start codon with the exception of COI gene, which use GTG as the initiation codon. Stop codons AGG, TAG, TAA, and AGA are present in the PCGs; exceptions are COII, COIII and ND4, which possess incomplete termination codons (T). But, the function of COII with incomplete stop codon T should be further investigated. The phylogeny revealed that genetic distance of Laniidae and Corvidae was closer than other species. Compared to other three shrike species, L. s. sphenocercus occupy a separate status in the genus Lanius.

Eye-movement study during visual search in Chinese children with developmental dyslexia.

BACKGROUND: Developmental dyslexia (DD) is a disorder in which children with normal intelligence and sensory abilities show learning deficits in reading. Abnormal eye movements have been found in DD. However, eye-movement abnormalities during visual search among Chinese children with DD remain unknown. We aimed to identify the eyemovement characteristics and search efficiency of Chinese children with DD during visual search for targets of different conceptual categories, under same-category conditions. METHODS: We compared 32 Chinese dyslexic children and 39 non-dyslexic children in visual search tasks, which were assessed using EyeLink II High-Speed Eye Tracker (SR Research Ltd., Canada). Letters, single Chinese characters, digits, Chinese phrases, figures and facial expressions were used as stimuli. Targets were similar to distractors in meaning, phonology and/or shape. RESULTS: A main effect of task on visual search scores and all eye-movement parameters were found. Search scores, average saccade amplitude and saccade distance were significantly smaller in the DD group than in the controls. An interaction between group and task was found for pupil diameter. CONCLUSIONS: Unlike normal readers, children with DD had a reduction in the visual attention span and search accuracy. Besides, children with DD could not increase their mental workload with increase in task difficulty. The conceptual category of the stimulus materials significantly impacts search speed, accuracy and eye-movement parameters.

[Analysis of the complete mitochondrial genome sequence of Larus brunnicephalus (Aves, Laridae)].

The complete sequence of mitochondrial genome of Larus brunnicephalus was determined using long PCR and conserved primers walking approaches. The results showed that the entire mitochondrial genome of L. brunnicephalus is 16,769 bp in length, which has been deposited in GenBank with the accession number JX155863. The mitochondrial genomic organization and gene order of L. brunnicephalus were consistent with that of Gallus gallus, which contains 13 protein coding genes (PCGs), 22 tRNA, 2 rRNA, and a control region. Except for COI gene using GTG and ND3 gene with ATT as the initiation codon, all other 11 PCGs of the mtDNA in L. brunnicephalus started with the typical ATG codon. AGG, TAG, TAA, or AGA were used in 11 PCGs as usual termination codons, except for COIII and ND4 genes with incomplete termination codon (T). The secondary structures of 22 tRNAs were predicted and it is found that the tRNASer (AGN) lacks DHU arm and tRNAPhe contains the fourth types of permutation in the TψC arm. It is predicted that the secondary structures of 12S rRNA and 16S rRNA include 4 structural domains with 47 helics and 6 domains with 60 helics, respectively. F-box, E-box, D-box, C-box, B-box, Bird similarity-box, and CSB-boxes (1-3), which were found in the control regions of other bird species were also present in L. brunnicephalus. The sequence in the starting regions of H-strand replication (OH) and the bidirectional light and heavy-strand transcription promoters (LSP/HSP) in the control region were also predicted. Result of phylogeny analysis supports that L. brunnicephalus should be categorized into the Masked gulls species.

Regional cerebral blood flow in children with autism spectrum disorders: a quantitative 99mTc-ECD brain SPECT study with statistical parametric mapping evaluation.

BACKGROUND: Autism spectrum disorders (ASD), which include autism, asperger syndrome (AS) and pervasive developmental disorder-not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS), are devastating neurodevelopmental disorders of childhood resulting in deficits in social interaction, repetitive patterns of behaviors, and restricted interests and activities. Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) is a common technique used to measure regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF). Several studies have measured rCBF in children with ASD using SPECT, however, findings are discordant. In addition, the majority of subjects used in these studies were autistic. In this study, we aimed to investigate changes in rCBF in children with ASD using SPECT. METHODS: A Technetium-99m-ethyl cysteinate dimmer (99m)Tc-ECD) brain SPECT study was performed on an ASD group consisting of 23 children (3 girls and 20 boys; mean age (7.2 ± 3.0) years) who were diagnosed according to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition (DSM-IV) criteria and an age-matched control group with 8 children (1 girl and 7 boys, mean age (5.5 ± 2.4) years). Image data were evaluated with Statistical Parametric Mapping, 5th version (SPM5). A Student's t test for unpaired data was used to compare rCBF and asymmetry in the autism and corresponding control group. The covariance analysis, taking age as covariance, was performed between the ASD and control group. RESULTS: There was a significant reduction in rCBF in the bilateral frontal lobe (frontal poles, arcula frontal gyrus) and the bilateral basal ganglia in the autism group, and a reduction in the bilateral frontal, temporal, parietal, legumina nucleus and cerebellum in the AS group compared to the control. In addition, asymmetry of hemispheric hypoperfusion in the ASD group was observed. Inner-group comparison analysis revealed that rCBF decreased significantly in the bilateral frontal lobe (42.7%), basal nucleus (24.9%) and temporal lobe (22.8%) in the autism group, and in the bilateral cerebellum (22.8%), basal nucleus (19.3%) and right thalamencephalon (16.6%) in the AS group (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: The decrease in rCBF in ASD is a global event, which involves the bilateral frontal, temporal, limbic system and basal ganglias. Asymmetry of hemispheric hypoperfusion was more obvious in the AS group than the autism group, which indicates a different neurobiological mechanism from that of autism.

Picture perception in Chinese dyslexic children: an eye-movement study.

BACKGROUND: Currently, whether or not there is visuospatial impairments in Chinese dyslexic children is still a matter of discussion. The relatively recent application of an eye-tracking paradigm may offer an opportunity to address this issue. In China, in comparison with reading studies, there have not been nearly as many eye movement studies dealing with nonreading tasks such as picture identification and whether Chinese children with dyslexia have a picture processing deficit is not clear. The purposes of the present study were to determine whether or not there is visuospatial impairments in Chinese dyslexic children. Moreover, we attempted to discuss whether or not the abnormal eye movement pattern that dyslexic subjects show during reading of text appropriate for their age is a consequence of their linguistic difficulties. METHODS: An eye-link II High-Speed Eye Tracker was used to track the series of eye-movement of 19 Chinese dyslexic children and 19 Chinese normal children. All of the subjects were presented with three pictures for this eye-tracking task and 6 relative eye-movement parameters, first fixation duration, average fixation duration, average saccade amplitude, mean saccade distance, fixation frequency and saccade frequency were recorded for analysis. RESULTS: Analyzing the relative parameter among three pictures, except for the fixation frequency and the saccade frequency, other eye-movement parameters were significantly different among the three pictures (P<0.05). Among the three pictures, the first fixation duration was longer, and the average fixation duration, the average saccade amplitude and the mean saccade distance were shorter from picture 2 to picture 3. Comparing all eye-movement parameter between the two groups, the scores of average saccade amplitude (P=0.017) and the mean saccade distance (P=0.02) were less in the dyslexia group than in the normal group (P<0.05), other parameters were the same in the two different groups (P>0.05). CONCLUSIONS: The characteristics of the pictures can significantly influence the visuospatial cognitive processing capability of the Chinese children. There is a detectable disability for the Chinese dyslexic children in the visuospatial cognitive processing: their saccade amplitude and mean saccade distance are shorter, which may be interpreted as specific for their reading disability.