Vitis vinifera Lipoxygenase LoxA is an Allosteric Dimer Activated by Lipidic Surfaces.

Lipoxygenases catalyze the peroxidation of poly-unsaturated fatty acid chains either free or esterified in membrane lipids. Vitis vinifera LoxA is transcriptionally induced at ripening onset and localizes at the inner chloroplast membrane where it is responsible for galactolipid regiospecific mono- and di-peroxidation. Here we present a kinetic and structural characterization of LoxA. Our X-ray structures reveal a constitutive dimer with detergent induced conformational changes affecting substrate binding and catalysis. In a closed conformation, a LID domain prevents substrate access to the catalytic site by steric hindrance. Detergent addition above the CMC destabilizes the LID and opens the dimer with both catalytic sites accessible from the same surface framed by the PLAT domains. As a consequence, detergent molecules occupy allosteric sites in the PLAT/catalytic domain interface. These structural changes are mirrored by increased enzymatic activity and positive cooperativity when the substrate is provided in micelles. The ability to interact with micelles is lost upon dimer destabilization by site-directed mutagenesis as assessed by tryptophan fluorescence. Our data allow to propose a model for protein activation at the membrane, classifying LoxA as an interfacial enzyme acting on fatty acid chains directly from the membrane similar to mammalian 15-LOX and 5-LOX.

Multi-protein assemblies orchestrate co-translational enzymatic processing on the human ribosome.

Nascent chains undergo co-translational enzymatic processing as soon as their N-terminus becomes accessible at the ribosomal polypeptide tunnel exit (PTE). In eukaryotes, N-terminal methionine excision (NME) by Methionine Aminopeptidases (MAP1 and MAP2), and N-terminal acetylation (NTA) by N-Acetyl-Transferase A (NatA), is the most common combination of subsequent modifications carried out on the 80S ribosome. How these enzymatic processes are coordinated in the context of a rapidly translating ribosome has remained elusive. Here, we report two cryo-EM structures of multi-enzyme complexes assembled on vacant human 80S ribosomes, indicating two routes for NME-NTA. Both assemblies form on the 80S independent of nascent chain substrates. Irrespective of the route, NatA occupies a non-intrusive 'distal' binding site on the ribosome which does not interfere with MAP1 or MAP2 binding nor with most other ribosome-associated factors (RAFs). NatA can partake in a coordinated, dynamic assembly with MAP1 through the hydra-like chaperoning function of the abundant Nascent Polypeptide-Associated Complex (NAC). In contrast to MAP1, MAP2 completely covers the PTE and is thus incompatible with NAC and MAP1 recruitment. Together, our data provide the structural framework for the coordinated orchestration of NME and NTA in protein biogenesis.

Methionine aminopeptidase 2 and its autoproteolysis product have different binding sites on the ribosome.

Excision of the initiator methionine is among the first co-translational processes that occur at the ribosome. While this crucial step in protein maturation is executed by two types of methionine aminopeptidases in eukaryotes (MAP1 and MAP2), additional roles in disease and translational regulation have drawn more attention to MAP2. Here, we report several cryo-EM structures of human and fungal MAP2 at the 80S ribosome. Irrespective of nascent chains, MAP2 can occupy the tunnel exit. On nascent chain displaying ribosomes, the MAP2-80S interaction is highly dynamic and the MAP2-specific N-terminal extension engages in stabilizing interactions with the long rRNA expansion segment ES27L. Loss of this extension by autoproteolytic cleavage impedes interactions at the tunnel, while promoting MAP2 to enter the ribosomal A-site, where it engages with crucial functional centers of translation. These findings reveal that proteolytic remodeling of MAP2 severely affects ribosome binding, and set the stage for targeted functional studies.

The GET insertase exhibits conformational plasticity and induces membrane thinning.

The eukaryotic guided entry of tail-anchored proteins (GET) pathway mediates the biogenesis of tail-anchored (TA) membrane proteins at the endoplasmic reticulum. In the cytosol, the Get3 chaperone captures the TA protein substrate and delivers it to the Get1/Get2 membrane protein complex (GET insertase), which then inserts the substrate via a membrane-embedded hydrophilic groove. Here, we present structures, atomistic simulations and functional data of human and Chaetomium thermophilum Get1/Get2/Get3. The core fold of the GET insertase is conserved throughout eukaryotes, whilst thinning of the lipid bilayer occurs in the vicinity of the hydrophilic groove to presumably lower the energetic barrier of membrane insertion. We show that the gating interaction between Get2 helix α3' and Get3 drives conformational changes in both Get3 and the Get1/Get2 membrane heterotetramer. Thus, we provide a framework to understand the conformational plasticity of the GET insertase and how it remodels its membrane environment to promote substrate insertion.

Structural inventory of cotranslational protein folding by the eukaryotic RAC complex.

The challenge of nascent chain folding at the ribosome is met by the conserved ribosome-associated complex (RAC), which forms a chaperone triad with the Hsp70 protein Ssb in fungi, and consists of the non-canonical Hsp70 Ssz1 and the J domain protein Zuotin (Zuo1). Here we determine cryo-EM structures of Chaetomium thermophilum RAC bound to 80S ribosomes. RAC adopts two distinct conformations accommodating continuous ribosomal rotation by a flexible lever arm. It is held together by a tight interaction between the Ssz1 substrate-binding domain and the Zuo1 N terminus, and additional contacts between the Ssz1 nucleotide-binding domain and Zuo1 J- and Zuo1 homology domains, which form a rigid unit. The Zuo1 HPD motif conserved in J-proteins is masked in a non-canonical interaction by the Ssz1 nucleotide-binding domain, and allows the positioning of Ssb for activation by Zuo1. Overall, we provide the basis for understanding how RAC cooperates with Ssb in a dynamic nascent chain interaction and protein folding.

Mechanistic insights into RNA surveillance by the canonical poly(A) polymerase Pla1 of the MTREC complex.

The S. pombe orthologue of the human PAXT connection, Mtl1-Red1 Core (MTREC), is an eleven-subunit complex that targets cryptic unstable transcripts (CUTs) to the nuclear RNA exosome for degradation. It encompasses the canonical poly(A) polymerase Pla1, responsible for polyadenylation of nascent RNA transcripts as part of the cleavage and polyadenylation factor (CPF/CPSF). In this study we identify and characterise the interaction between Pla1 and the MTREC complex core component Red1 and analyse the functional relevance of this interaction in vivo. Our crystal structure of the Pla1-Red1 complex shows that a 58-residue fragment in Red1 binds to the RNA recognition motif domain of Pla1 and tethers it to the MTREC complex. Structure-based Pla1-Red1 interaction mutations show that Pla1, as part of MTREC complex, hyper-adenylates CUTs for their efficient degradation. Interestingly, the Red1-Pla1 interaction is also required for the efficient assembly of the fission yeast facultative heterochromatic islands. Together, our data suggest a complex interplay between the RNA surveillance and 3'-end processing machineries.

High-resolution structures of a thermophilic eukaryotic 80S ribosome reveal atomistic details of translocation.

Ribosomes are complex and highly conserved ribonucleoprotein assemblies catalyzing protein biosynthesis in every organism. Here we present high-resolution cryo-EM structures of the 80S ribosome from a thermophilic fungus in two rotational states, which due to increased 80S stability provide a number of mechanistic details of eukaryotic translation. We identify a universally conserved 'nested base-triple knot' in the 26S rRNA at the polypeptide tunnel exit with a bulged-out nucleotide that likely serves as an adaptable element for nascent chain containment and handover. We visualize the structure and dynamics of the ribosome protective factor Stm1 upon ribosomal 40S head swiveling. We describe the structural impact of a unique and essential m1acp3 Ψ 18S rRNA hyper-modification embracing the anticodon wobble-position for eukaryotic tRNA and mRNA translocation. We complete the eEF2-GTPase switch cycle describing the GDP-bound post-hydrolysis state. Taken together, our data and their integration into the structural landscape of 80S ribosomes furthers our understanding of protein biogenesis.

Structural analysis of the SRP Alu domain from Plasmodium falciparum reveals a non-canonical open conformation.

The eukaryotic signal recognition particle (SRP) contains an Alu domain, which docks into the factor binding site of translating ribosomes and confers translation retardation. The canonical Alu domain consists of the SRP9/14 protein heterodimer and a tRNA-like folded Alu RNA that adopts a strictly 'closed' conformation involving a loop-loop pseudoknot. Here, we study the structure of the Alu domain from Plasmodium falciparum (PfAlu), a divergent apicomplexan protozoan that causes human malaria. Using NMR, SAXS and cryo-EM analyses, we show that, in contrast to its prokaryotic and eukaryotic counterparts, the PfAlu domain adopts an 'open' Y-shaped conformation. We show that cytoplasmic P. falciparum ribosomes are non-discriminative and recognize both the open PfAlu and closed human Alu domains with nanomolar affinity. In contrast, human ribosomes do not provide high affinity binding sites for either of the Alu domains. Our analyses extend the structural database of Alu domains to the protozoan species and reveal species-specific differences in the recognition of SRP Alu domains by ribosomes.

Structural and Functional Impact of SRP54 Mutations Causing Severe Congenital Neutropenia.

The SRP54 GTPase is a key component of co-translational protein targeting by the signal recognition particle (SRP). Point mutations in SRP54 have been recently shown to lead to a form of severe congenital neutropenia displaying symptoms overlapping with those of Shwachman-Diamond syndrome. The phenotype includes severe neutropenia, exocrine pancreatic deficiency, and neurodevelopmental as well as skeletal disorders. Using a combination of X-ray crystallography, hydrogen-deuterium exchange coupled to mass spectrometry and complementary biochemical and biophysical methods, we reveal extensive structural defects in three disease-causing SRP54 variants resulting in critical protein destabilization. GTP binding is mostly abolished as a consequence of an altered GTPase core. The mutations located in conserved sequence fingerprints of SRP54 eliminate targeting complex formation with the SRP receptor as demonstrated in yeast and human cells. These specific defects critically influence the entire SRP pathway, thereby causing this life-threatening disease.

SRP54 mutations induce congenital neutropenia via dominant-negative effects on XBP1 splicing.

Heterozygous de novo missense variants of SRP54 were recently identified in patients with congenital neutropenia (CN) who display symptoms that overlap with Shwachman-Diamond syndrome (SDS). Here, we investigate srp54 knockout zebrafish as the first in vivo model of SRP54 deficiency. srp54-/- zebrafish experience embryonic lethality and display multisystemic developmental defects along with severe neutropenia. In contrast, srp54+/- zebrafish are viable, fertile, and show only mild neutropenia. Interestingly, injection of human SRP54 messenger RNAs (mRNAs) that carry mutations observed in patients (T115A, T117Δ, and G226E) aggravated neutropenia and induced pancreatic defects in srp54+/- fish, mimicking the corresponding human clinical phenotypes. These data suggest that the various phenotypes observed in patients may be a result of mutation-specific dominant-negative effects on the functionality of the residual wild-type SRP54 protein. Overexpression of mutated SRP54 also consistently induced neutropenia in wild-type fish and impaired the granulocytic maturation of human promyelocytic HL-60 cells and healthy cord blood-derived CD34+ hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells. Mechanistically, srp54-mutant fish and human cells show impaired unconventional splicing of the transcription factor X-box binding protein 1 (Xbp1). Moreover, xbp1 morphants recapitulate phenotypes observed in srp54 deficiency and, importantly, injection of spliced, but not unspliced, xbp1 mRNA rescues neutropenia in srp54+/- zebrafish. Together, these data indicate that SRP54 is critical for the development of various tissues, with neutrophils reacting most sensitively to the loss of SRP54. The heterogenic phenotypes observed in patients that range from mild CN to SDS-like disease may be the result of different dominant-negative effects of mutated SRP54 proteins on downstream XBP1 splicing, which represents a potential therapeutic target.

Functional implications of MIR domains in protein O-mannosylation.

Protein O-mannosyltransferases (PMTs) represent a conserved family of multispanning endoplasmic reticulum membrane proteins involved in glycosylation of S/T-rich protein substrates and unfolded proteins. PMTs work as dimers and contain a luminal MIR domain with a ß-trefoil fold, which is susceptive for missense mutations causing α-dystroglycanopathies in humans. Here, we analyze PMT-MIR domains by an integrated structural biology approach using X-ray crystallography and NMR spectroscopy and evaluate their role in PMT function in vivo. We determine Pmt2- and Pmt3-MIR domain structures and identify two conserved mannose-binding sites, which are consistent with general ß-trefoil carbohydrate-binding sites (α, ß), and also a unique PMT2-subfamily exposed FKR motif. We show that conserved residues in site α influence enzyme processivity of the Pmt1-Pmt2 heterodimer in vivo. Integration of the data into the context of a Pmt1-Pmt2 structure and comparison with homologous ß-trefoil - carbohydrate complexes allows for a functional description of MIR domains in protein O-mannosylation.

Structural Basis of Tail-Anchored Membrane Protein Biogenesis by the GET Insertase Complex.

Membrane protein biogenesis faces the challenge of chaperoning hydrophobic transmembrane helices for faithful membrane insertion. The guided entry of tail-anchored proteins (GET) pathway targets and inserts tail-anchored (TA) proteins into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane with an insertase (yeast Get1/Get2 or mammalian WRB/CAML) that captures the TA from a cytoplasmic chaperone (Get3 or TRC40, respectively). Here, we present cryo-electron microscopy reconstructions, native mass spectrometry, and structure-based mutagenesis of human WRB/CAML/TRC40 and yeast Get1/Get2/Get3 complexes. Get3 binding to the membrane insertase supports heterotetramer formation, and phosphatidylinositol binding at the heterotetramer interface stabilizes the insertase for efficient TA insertion in vivo. We identify a Get2/CAML cytoplasmic helix that forms a "gating" interaction with Get3/TRC40 important for TA insertion. Structural homology with YidC and the ER membrane protein complex (EMC) implicates an evolutionarily conserved insertion mechanism for divergent substrates utilizing a hydrophilic groove. Thus, we provide a detailed structural and mechanistic framework to understand TA membrane insertion.

Complexin Suppresses Spontaneous Exocytosis by Capturing the Membrane-Proximal Regions of VAMP2 and SNAP25.

The neuronal protein complexin contains multiple domains that exert clamping and facilitatory functions to tune spontaneous and action potential-triggered synaptic release. We address the clamping mechanism and show that the accessory helix of complexin arrests assembly of the soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor (SNARE) complex that forms the core machinery of intracellular membrane fusion. In a reconstituted fusion assay, site- and stage-specific photo-cross-linking reveals that, prior to fusion, the complexin accessory helix laterally binds the membrane-proximal C-terminal ends of SNAP25 and VAMP2. Corresponding complexin interface mutants selectively increase spontaneous release of neurotransmitters in living neurons, implying that the accessory helix suppresses final zippering/assembly of the SNARE four-helix bundle by restraining VAMP2 and SNAP25.

Structural basis for the complex DNA binding behavior of the plant stem cell regulator WUSCHEL.

Stem cells are one of the foundational evolutionary novelties that allowed the independent emergence of multicellularity in the plant and animal lineages. In plants, the homeodomain (HD) transcription factor WUSCHEL (WUS) is essential for the maintenance of stem cells in the shoot apical meristem. WUS has been reported to bind to diverse DNA motifs and to act as transcriptional activator and repressor. However, the mechanisms underlying this remarkable behavior have remained unclear. Here, we quantitatively delineate WUS binding to three divergent DNA motifs and resolve the relevant structural underpinnings. We show that WUS exhibits a strong binding preference for TGAA repeat sequences, while retaining the ability to weakly bind to TAAT elements. This behavior is attributable to the formation of dimers through interactions of specific residues in the HD that stabilize WUS DNA interaction. Our results provide a mechanistic basis for dissecting WUS dependent regulatory networks in plant stem cell control.

MetAP-like Ebp1 occupies the human ribosomal tunnel exit and recruits flexible rRNA expansion segments.

Human Ebp1 is a member of the proliferation-associated 2G4 (PA2G4) family and plays an important role in cancer regulation. Ebp1 shares the methionine aminopeptidase (MetAP) fold and binds to mature 80S ribosomes for translational control. Here, we present a cryo-EM single particle analysis reconstruction of Ebp1 bound to non-translating human 80S ribosomes at a resolution range from 3.3 to ~8 Å. Ebp1 blocks the tunnel exit with major interactions to the general uL23/uL29 docking site for nascent chain-associated factors complemented by eukaryote-specific eL19 and rRNA helix H59. H59 is defined as dynamic adaptor undergoing significant remodeling upon Ebp1 binding. Ebp1 recruits rRNA expansion segment ES27L to the tunnel exit via specific interactions with rRNA consensus sequences. The Ebp1-ribosome complex serves as a template for MetAP binding and provides insights into the structural principles for spatial coordination of co-translational events and molecular triage at the ribosomal tunnel exit.

Structure, dynamics and interactions of large SRP variants.

Co-translational protein targeting to membranes relies on the signal recognition particle (SRP) system consisting of a cytosolic ribonucleoprotein complex and its membrane-associated receptor. SRP recognizes N-terminal cleavable signals or signal anchor sequences, retards translation, and delivers ribosome-nascent chain complexes (RNCs) to vacant translocation channels in the target membrane. While our mechanistic understanding is well advanced for the small bacterial systems it lags behind for the large bacterial, archaeal and eukaryotic SRP variants including an Alu and an S domain. Here we describe recent advances on structural and functional insights in domain architecture, particle dynamics and interplay with RNCs and translocon and GTP-dependent regulation of co-translational protein targeting stimulated by SRP RNA.

Copper and zinc ions govern the trans-directed dimerization of APP family members in multiple ways.

The amyloid precursor protein (APP) and its homologs amyloid precursor-like protein 1 (APLP1) and APLP2 have central physiological functions in transcellular adhesion that depend on copper and zinc mediated trans-directed dimerization of the extracellular domains E1 and E2. Copper binds to three distinct sites in APP, one in the copper binding (CuBD) and growth factor-like (GFLD) domains each within E1, and one in the E2 domain. For APLP1 and APLP2, metal binding has so far only been shown for the E2 domain. Zinc binding has been reported for all APP family members to a unique site in the E2 domain and an additional site essential for APLP1 E2 domain trans-dimerization. Using isothermal titration calorimetry, co-immunoprecipitation, and in vitro bead aggregation assays, we show that copper promotes cis- as well as trans-directed dimerization of APLP1 and APLP2, similar as reported previously for APP. Furthermore, we report a APP-specific zinc binding site with nanomolar affinity located in the E1 domain, whereas no binding of zinc to the individual subdomains GFLD or CuBD was detected. Zinc binding did not affect the cis- but trans-dimerization of APP and APLP1. Furthermore, zinc binding inhibited copper-induced trans-directed dimerization of APP. Together, we identified a high-affinity APP-specific zinc binding site in the E1 domain and revealed contrasting cis- and trans-directed dimerization properties of APP, APLP1, and APLP2 in dependence on zinc and copper ions. Consequently, changes in metal ion homeostasis, as reported in the context of synaptic activity and neurodegenerative diseases, appear as key modulators of homo- and heterotypic trans-cellular APP/APLPs complexes.

Reconstitution of the human SRP system and quantitative and systematic analysis of its ribosome interactions.

Co-translational protein targeting to membranes depends on the regulated interaction of two ribonucleoprotein particles (RNPs): the ribosome and the signal recognition particle (SRP). Human SRP is composed of an SRP RNA and six proteins with the SRP GTPase SRP54 forming the targeting complex with the heterodimeric SRP receptor (SRαß) at the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. While detailed structural and functional data are available especially for the bacterial homologs, the analysis of human SRP was impeded by the unavailability of recombinant SRP. Here, we describe the large-scale production of all human SRP components and the reconstitution of homogeneous SRP and SR complexes. Binding to human ribosomes is determined by microscale thermophoresis for individual components, assembly intermediates and entire SRP, and binding affinities are correlated with structural information available for all ribosomal contacts. We show that SRP RNA does not bind to the ribosome, while SRP binds with nanomolar affinity involving a two-step mechanism of the key-player SRP54. Ultrasensitive binding of SRP68/72 indicates avidity by multiple binding sites that are dominated by the C-terminus of SRP72. Our data extend the experimental basis to understand the mechanistic principles of co-translational targeting in mammals and may guide analyses of complex RNP-RNP interactions in general.

Split-BioID a conditional proteomics approach to monitor the composition of spatiotemporally defined protein complexes.

Understanding the function of the thousands of cellular proteins is a central question in molecular cell biology. As proteins are typically part of multiple dynamic and often overlapping macromolecular complexes exerting distinct functions, the identification of protein-protein interactions (PPI) and their assignment to specific complexes is a crucial but challenging task. We present a protein fragments complementation assay integrated with the proximity-dependent biotinylation technique BioID. Activated on the interaction of two proteins, split-BioID is a conditional proteomics approach that allows in a single and simple assay to both experimentally validate binary PPI and to unbiasedly identify additional interacting factors. Applying our method to the miRNA-mediated silencing pathway, we can probe the proteomes of two distinct functional complexes containing the Ago2 protein and uncover the protein GIGYF2 as a regulator of miRNA-mediated translation repression. Hence, we provide a novel tool to study dynamic spatiotemporally defined protein complexes in their native cellular environment.

Structural basis for 5'-ETS recognition by Utp4 at the early stages of ribosome biogenesis.

Eukaryotic ribosome biogenesis begins with the co-transcriptional assembly of the 90S pre-ribosome. The 'U three protein' (UTP) complexes and snoRNP particles arrange around the nascent pre-ribosomal RNA chaperoning its folding and further maturation. The earliest event in this hierarchical process is the binding of the UTP-A complex to the 5'-end of the pre-ribosomal RNA (5'-ETS). This oligomeric complex predominantly consists of ß-propeller and α-solenoidal proteins. Here we present the structure of the Utp4 subunit from the thermophilic fungus Chaetomium thermophilum at 2.15 Å resolution and analyze its function by UV RNA-crosslinking (CRAC) and in context of a recent cryo-EM structure of the 90S pre-ribosome. Utp4 consists of two orthogonal and highly basic ß-propellers that perfectly fit the EM-data. The Utp4 structure highlights an unusual Velcro-closure of its C-terminal ß-propeller as relevant for protein integrity and potentially Utp8 recognition in the context of the pre-ribosome. We provide a first model of the 5'-ETS RNA from the internally hidden 5'-end up to the region that hybridizes to the 3'-hinge sequence of U3 snoRNA and validate a specific Utp4/5'-ETS interaction by CRAC analysis.