An MR-based brain template and atlas for optical projection tomography and light sheet fluorescence microscopy in neuroscience.

Introduction: Optical Projection Tomography (OPT) and light sheet fluorescence microscopy (LSFM) are high resolution optical imaging techniques, ideally suited for ex vivo 3D whole mouse brain imaging. Although they exhibit high specificity for their targets, the anatomical detail provided by tissue autofluorescence remains limited. Methods: T1-weighted images were acquired from 19 BABB or DBE cleared brains to create an MR template using serial longitudinal registration. Afterwards, fluorescent OPT and LSFM images were coregistered/normalized to the MR template to create fusion images. Results: Volumetric calculations revealed a significant difference between BABB and DBE cleared brains, leading to develop two optimized templates, with associated tissue priors and brain atlas, for BABB (OCUM) and DBE (iOCUM). By creating fusion images, we identified virus infected brain regions, mapped dopamine transporter and translocator protein expression, and traced innervation from the eye along the optic tract to the thalamus and superior colliculus using cholera toxin B. Fusion images allowed for precise anatomical identification of fluorescent signal in the detailed anatomical context provided by MR. Discussion: The possibility to anatomically map fluorescent signals on magnetic resonance (MR) images, widely used in clinical and preclinical neuroscience, would greatly benefit applications of optical imaging of mouse brain. These specific MR templates for cleared brains enable a broad range of neuroscientific applications integrating 3D optical brain imaging.

Type I interferon shapes brain distribution and tropism of tick-borne flavivirus.

Viral tropism within the brain and the role(s) of vertebrate immune response to neurotropic flaviviruses infection is largely understudied. We combine multimodal imaging (cm-nm scale) with single nuclei RNA-sequencing to study Langat virus in wildtype and interferon alpha/beta receptor knockout (Ifnar-/-) mice to visualize viral pathogenesis and define molecular mechanisms. Whole brain viral infection is imaged by Optical Projection Tomography coregistered to ex vivo MRI. Infection is limited to grey matter of sensory systems in wildtype mice, but extends into white matter, meninges and choroid plexus in Ifnar-/- mice. Cells in wildtype display strong type I and II IFN responses, likely due to Ifnb expressing astrocytes, infiltration of macrophages and Ifng-expressing CD8+ NK cells, whereas in Ifnar-/-, the absence of this response contributes to a shift in cellular tropism towards non-activated resident microglia. Multimodal imaging-transcriptomics exemplifies a powerful way to characterize mechanisms of viral pathogenesis and tropism.

Mesoscopic Optical Imaging of the Pancreas-Revisiting Pancreatic Anatomy and Pathophysiology.

The exocrine-endocrine multipart organization of the pancreas makes it an exceedingly challenging organ to analyze, quantitatively and spatially. Both in rodents and humans, estimates of the pancreatic cellular composition, including beta-cell mass, has been largely relying on the extrapolation of 2D stereological data originating from limited sample volumes. Alternatively, they have been obtained by low resolution non-invasive imaging techniques providing little detail regarding the anatomical organization of the pancreas and its cellular and/or molecular make up. In this mini-review, the state of the art and the future potential of currently existing and emerging high-resolution optical imaging techniques working in the mm-cm range with µm resolution, here referred to as mesoscopic imaging approaches, will be discussed regarding their contribution toward a better understanding of pancreatic anatomy both in normal conditions and in the diabetic setting. In particular, optical projection tomography (OPT) and light sheet fluorescence microscopy (LSFM) imaging of the pancreas and their associated tissue processing and computational analysis protocols will be discussed in the light of their current capabilities and future potential to obtain more detailed 3D-spatial, quantitative, and molecular information of the pancreas.

A Quantitative Evaluation of Joint Activity and Attenuation Reconstruction in TOF PET/MR Brain Imaging.

Time-of-flight (TOF) PET data provide an effective means for attenuation correction (AC) when no (or incomplete or inaccurate) attenuation information is available. Since MR scanners provide little information on photon attenuation of different tissue types, AC in hybrid PET/MR scanners has always been challenging. In this contribution, we aim at validating the activity reconstructions of the maximum-likelihood ordered-subsets activity and attenuation (OSAA) reconstruction algorithm on a patient brain data set. We present a quantitative comparison of joint reconstructions with the current clinical gold standard-ordered-subsets expectation maximization-using CT-based AC in PET/CT, as well as the current state of the art in PET/MR, that is, zero time echo (ZTE)-based AC. Methods: The TOF PET emission data were initially used in a preprocessing stage to estimate crystal maps of efficiencies, timing offsets, and timing resolutions. Applying these additional corrections during reconstructions, OSAA, ZTE-based, and the vendor-provided atlas-based AC techniques were analyzed and compared with CT-based AC. In our initial study, we used the CT-based estimate of the expected scatter and later used the ZTE-based and OSAA attenuation estimates to compute the expected scatter contribution of the data during reconstructions. In all reconstructions, a maximum-likelihood scaling of the single-scatter simulation estimate to the emission data was used for scatter correction. The reconstruction results were analyzed in the 86 segmented regions of interest of the Hammers atlas. Results: Our quantitative analysis showed that, in practice, a tracer activity difference of +0.5% (±2.1%) and +0.1% (±2.3%) could be expected for the state-of-the-art ZTE-based and OSAA AC methods, respectively, in PET/MR compared with the clinical gold standard in PET/CT. Conclusion: Joint activity and attenuation estimation methods can provide an effective solution to the challenging AC problem for brain studies in hybrid TOF PET/MR scanners. With an accurate TOF-based (timing offsets and timing resolutions) calibration, and similar to the results of the state-of-the-art method in PET/MR, regional errors of joint TOF PET reconstructions are within a few percentage points.

Characterization of 111In-labeled Glucose-Dependent Insulinotropic Polypeptide as a Radiotracer for Neuroendocrine Tumors.

Somatostatin receptor targeting is considered the standard nuclear medicine technique for visualization of neuroendocrine tumors (NET). Since not all NETs over-express somatostatin receptors, the search for novel targets, visualizing these NETs, is ongoing. Many NETs, expressing low somatostatin receptor levels, express glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) receptors (GIPR). Here, we evaluated the performance of [Lys37(DTPA)]N-acetyl-GIP1-42, a newly synthesized GIP analogue to investigate whether NET imaging via GIPR targeting is feasible. Therefore, [Lys37(DTPA)]N-acetyl-GIP1-42 was radiolabeled with 111In with specific activity up to 1.2 TBq/µmol and both in vitro and in vivo receptor targeting properties were examined. In vitro, [Lys37(111In-DTPA)]N-acetyl-GIP1-42 showed receptor-mediated binding to BHK-GIPR positive cells, NES2Y cells and isolated islets. In vivo, both NES2Y and GIPR-transfected BHK tumors were visualized on SPECT/CT. Furthermore, co-administration of an excess unlabeled GIP1-42 lowered tracer uptake from 0.7 ± 0.2%ID/g to 0.6 ± 0.01%ID/g (p = 0.78) in NES2Y tumors and significantly lowered tracer uptake from 3.3 ± 0.8 to 0.8 ± 0.2%ID/g (p = 0.0001) in GIPR-transfected BHK tumors. In conclusion, [Lys37(111In-DTPA)]N-acetyl-GIP1-42 shows receptor-mediated binding in various models. Furthermore, both GIPR-transfected BHK tumors and NES2Y tumors were visible on SPECT/CT using this tracer. Therefore, [Lys37(111In-DTPA)]N-acetyl-GIP1-42 SPECT seems promising for visualization of somatostatin receptor negative NETs.

Non-invasive in vivo determination of viable islet graft volume by 111In-exendin-3.

Pancreatic islet transplantation is a promising therapy for patients with type 1 diabetes. However, the duration of long-term graft survival is limited due to inflammatory as well as non-inflammatory processes and routine clinical tests are not suitable to monitor islet survival. 111In-exendin-SPECT (single photon emission computed tomography) is a promising method to non-invasively image islets after transplantation and has the potential to help improve the clinical outcome. Whether 111In-exendin-SPECT allows detecting small differences in beta-cell mass (BCM) and measuring the actual volume of islets that were successfully engrafted has yet to be demonstrated. Here, we evaluated the performance of 111In-exendin-SPECT using an intramuscular islet transplantation model in C3H mice. In vivo imaging of animals transplanted with 50, 100, 200, 400 and 800 islets revealed an excellent linear correlation between SPECT quantification of 111In-exendin uptake and insulin-positive area of islet transplants, demonstrating that 111In-exendin-SPECT specifically and accurately measures BCM. The high sensitivity of the method allowed measuring small differences in graft volumes, including grafts that contained less than 50 islets. The presented method is reliable, convenient and holds great potential for non-invasive monitoring of BCM after islet transplantation in humans.

Quantitative and longitudinal imaging of intramuscular transplanted islets of Langerhans with SPECT using [ 123 I]IBZM.

A non-invasive imaging method to monitor islet grafts could provide novel and improved insight into the fate of transplanted islets and, potentially, monitor the effect of therapeutic interventions. Therefore, such an imaging method could help improve long-term transplantation outcome. Here, we investigated the use of [ 123 I]IBZM for insulin positive graft volume quantification and longitudinal graft monitoring. SPECT images were acquired 6 weeks after islet transplantation in the calf muscle of rats. For longitudinal graft analysis, rats were monitored by SPECT for 10 weeks. After animals were euthanized, graft containing muscles were dissected for ex vivo analysis and insulin-positive graft volume determination. Six weeks after transplantation, a clear signal was observed in all grafts by SPECT imaging. Moreover, the intensity of the SPECT signal correlated linearly with insulin-positive graft volume, as determined histologically. Longitudinal graft follow-up showed a clear SPECT signal of the transplant from 3 until 10 weeks after transplantation. In this study, we demonstrate for the first time the successful application of a radiotracer, [ 123 I]IBZM, for non-invasive, in vivo graft volume quantification and longitudinal graft monitoring.

Positron emission tomography in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: Towards targeting of molecular pathological hallmarks.

During the past decades, extensive efforts have been made to expand the knowledge of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). However, clinical translation of this research, in terms of earlier diagnosis and improved therapy, remains challenging. Since more than 30% of motor neurons are lost when symptoms become clinically apparent, techniques allowing non-invasive, in vivo detection of motor neuron degeneration are needed in the early, pre-symptomatic disease stage. Furthermore, it has become apparent that non-motor signs play an important role in the disease and there is an overlap with cognitive disorders, such as frontotemporal dementia (FTD). Radionuclide imaging, such as positron emission tomography (PET) and single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), form an attractive approach to quantitatively monitor the ongoing neurodegenerative processes. Although [18F]-FDG has been recently proposed as a potential biomarker for ALS, active targeting of the underlying pathologic molecular processes is likely to unravel further valuable disease information and may help to decipher the pathogenesis of ALS. In this review, we provide an overview of radiotracers that have already been applied in ALS and discuss possible novel targets for in vivo imaging of various pathogenic processes underlying ALS onset and progression.

Strain Differences Determine the Suitability of Animal Models for Noninvasive In Vivo Beta Cell Mass Determination with Radiolabeled Exendin.

PURPOSE: Noninvasive beta cell mass (BCM) quantification is a crucial tool to understand diabetes development and progression. [(111)In]exendin is a promising agent for in vivo beta cell imaging, but tracer testing has been hampered by the lack of well-defined rodent models. PROCEDURES: Biodistribution and pancreatic uptake of [(111)In]exendin were compared in rats and mice. In selected models, the amount of [(111)In]exendin accumulation in the pancreas and other organs was determined using a model of alloxan-induced beta cell loss. GLP-1R expression levels were analyzed by RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry. RESULTS: Namely Brown Norway rats showed beta-cell-specific tracer accumulation and favorable pancreas-to-background ratios for noninvasive BCM determination. Mice displayed receptor-mediated [(111)In]exendin uptake in endocrine and exocrine pancreas, in spite of very low GLP-1R expression in exocrine tissue. CONCLUSIONS: Rats display better characteristics for in vivo BCM determination than mice and are suggested as a more adequate model for humans.

Noninvasive Imaging of Islet Transplants with 111In-Exendin-3 SPECT/CT.

UNLABELLED: Islet transplantation is a promising treatment for type 1 diabetic patients. However, there is acute as well as chronic loss of islets after transplantation. A noninvasive imaging method that could monitor islet mass might help to improve transplantation outcomes. In this study, islets were visualized after transplantation in a rat model with a dedicated small-animal SPECT scanner by targeting the glucagonlike peptide-1 receptor (GLP-1R), specifically expressed on ß-cells, with (111)In-labeled exendin-3. METHODS: Targeting of (111)In-exendin-3 to GLP-1R was tested in vitro on isolated islets of WAG/Rij rats. For in vivo evaluation, 400 or 800 islets were transplanted into the calf muscle of WAG/Rij rats (6-8 wk old). Four weeks after transplantation, SPECT/CT images were acquired 1 h after injection of (111)In-labeled exendin-3. After SPECT acquisition, the muscles containing the transplant were analyzed immunohistochemically and autoradiographically. RESULTS: The binding assay, performed on isolated islets, showed a linear correlation between the number of islets and (111)In-exendin-3 accumulation (Pearson r = 0.98). In vivo, a 1.70 ± 0.44-fold difference in tracer uptake between 400 and 800 transplanted islets was observed. Ex vivo analysis of the islet transplant showed colocalization of tracer accumulation on autoradiography, with insulin-positive cells and GLP-1R expression on immunohistochemistry. CONCLUSION: (111)In-exendin-3 accumulates specifically in the ß-cells after islet transplantation and is a promising tracer for noninvasive monitoring of the islet mass.

SPECT of Transplanted Islets of Langerhans by Dopamine 2 Receptor Targeting in a Rat Model.

Pancreatic islet transplantation can be a more permanent treatment for type 1 diabetes compared to daily insulin administration. Quantitative and longitudinal noninvasive imaging of viable transplanted islets might help to further improve this novel therapy. Since islets express dopamine 2 (D2) receptors, they could be visualized by targeting this receptor. Therefore, the D2 receptor antagonist based tracer [(125/123)I][IBZM] was selected to visualize transplanted islets in a rat model. BZM was radioiodinated, and the labeling was optimized for position 3 of the aromatic ring. [(125)I]-3-IBZM was characterized in vitro using INS-1 cells and isolated islets. Subsequently, 1,000 islets were transplanted in the calf muscle of WAG/Rij rats and SPECT/CT images were acquired 6 weeks after transplantation. Finally, the graft containing muscle was dissected and analyzed immunohistochemically. Oxidative radioiodination resulted in 3 IBZM isomers with different receptor affinities. The use of 0.6 mg/mL chloramine-T hydrate resulted in high yield formation of predominantly [(125)I]-3-IBZM, the isomer harboring the highest receptor affinity. The tracer showed D2 receptor mediated binding to isolated islets in vitro. The transplant could be visualized by SPECT 6 weeks after transplantation. The transplants could be localized in the calf muscle and showed insulin and glucagon expression, indicating targeting of viable and functional islets in the transplant. Radioiodination was optimized to produce high yields of [(125)I]-3-IBZM, the isomer showing optimal D2R binding. Furthermore, [(123)I]IBZM specifically targets the D2 receptors on transplanted islets. In conclusion, this tracer shows potential for noninvasive in vivo detection of islets grafted in the muscle by D2 receptor targeting.