Research progress on plant stress-associated protein (SAP) family: Master regulators to deal with environmental stresses.

Every year, unfavorable environmental factors significantly affect crop productivity and threaten food security. Plants are sessile; they cannot move to escape unfavorable environmental conditions, and therefore, they activate a variety of defense pathways. Among them are processes regulated by stress-associated proteins (SAPs). SAPs have a specific zinc finger domain (A20) at the N-terminus and either AN1 or C2H2 at the C-terminus. SAP proteins are involved in many biological processes and in response to various abiotic or biotic constraints. Most SAPs play a role in conferring transgenic stress resistance and are stress-inducible. The emerging field of SAPs in abiotic or biotic stress response regulation has attracted the attention of researchers. Although SAPs interact with various proteins to perform their functions, the exact mechanisms of these interactions remain incompletely understood. This review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of SAPs, covering their diversity, structure, expression, and subcellular localization. SAPs play a pivotal role in enabling crosstalk between abiotic and biotic stress signaling pathways, making them essential for developing stress-tolerant crops without yield penalties. Collectively, understanding the complex regulation of SAPs in stress responses can contribute to enhancing tolerance against various environmental stresses through several techniques such as transgenesis, classical breeding, or gene editing.

Rosmarinus officinalis L. essential oil enhances salt stress tolerance of durum wheat seedlings through ROS detoxification and stimulation of antioxidant defense.

Salt-induced stress poses a significant barrier to agricultural productivity by impeding crop growth. Presently, environmentalists are dedicated to safeguarding food security by enhancing agricultural yields in challenging environments. Biostimulants play a crucial role in mitigating abiotic stresses in crop production, and among these, plant essential oils (EOs) stand out as organic substances with diverse biological effects on living organisms. Among the natural promoters of plant growth, Rosmarinus officinalis L. essential oil (RoEO) has gained considerable attention. Although the manifold effects of essential oils (EOs) on plant growth have been extensively demonstrated, their impact on salt stress tolerance in durum wheat seedlings remains unexplored. This investigation was undertaken to evaluate the biostimulatory capabilities of RoEO on the durum wheat cultivar "Mahmoudi." The effects of three RoEO concentrations (1, 2.5, and 5 ppm) on seed germination, growth establishment, and the induction of salt resistance under salinity conditions (150 mM NaCl) were tested. At 5 ppm, RoEO enhanced seedlings' tolerance to salinity by improving growth and reducing membrane deterioration and oxidative stress-induced damage. The expression profile analyses of seven stress-related genes (TdNHX1, TdSOS1, TdSOD, TdCAT, TdGA20-ox1, TdNRT2.1, and TdGS) using RT-qPCR showed enhancement of several important genes in durum wheat seedlings treated with 5 ppm RoEO, even under control conditions, which may be related to salt stress tolerance. The results indicate that the application of RoEO suggests a possible alternative strategy to increase salt tolerance in durum wheat seedlings towards better growth quality, thus increasing ROS scavenging and activation of antioxidant defense.

Response to Cadmium in Silene vulgaris Ecotypes Is Distinctly Affected by Priming-Induced Changes in Oxidation Status of Macromolecules.

This study investigated the impact of several priming agents on metal-tolerant and sensitive Silene vulgaris ecotypes exposed to environmentally relevant cadmium dose. We analyzed how priming-induced changes in the level of lipid, protein, and DNA oxidation contribute to calamine (Cal) and non-calamine (N-Cal) ecotype response to Cd toxicity, and whether the oxidative modifications interrelate with Cd tolerance. In non-primed ecotypes, the levels of DNA and protein oxidation were similar whereas Cal Cd tolerance was manifested in reduced lipid peroxidation. In both ecotypes protective action of salicylic acid (SA) and nitric oxide (NO) priming was observed. SA stimulated growth and reduced lipid and DNA oxidation at most, while NO protected DNA from fragmentation. Priming with hydrogen peroxide reduced biomass and induced DNA oxidation. In N-Cal, priming diminished Cd accumulation and oxidative activity, whereas in Cal, it merely affected Cd uptake and induced protein carbonylation. The study showed that priming did not stimulate extra stress resistance in the tolerant ecotype but induced metabolic remodeling. In turn, the lack of adaptive tolerance made the sensitive ecotype more responsive to the benefits of the primed state. These findings could facilitate priming exploitation with a view of enhancing metallophyte and non-metallophyte suitability for phytoremediation and land revegetation.

Assessment of Shoot Priming Efficiency to Counteract Complex Metal Stress in Halotolerant Lobularia maritima.

The study investigated whether short-term priming supports plant defense against complex metal stress and multiple stress (metals and salinity) in halophyte Lobularia maritima (L.) Desv. Plants were pre-treated with ectoine (Ect), nitric oxide donor-sodium nitroprusside (SNP), or hydrogen sulfide donor-GYY4137 for 7 days, and were transferred onto medium containing a mixture of metal ions: Zn, Pb, and Cd. To test the effect of priming agents in multiple stress conditions, shoots were also subjected to low salinity (20 mM NaCl), applied alone, or combined with metals. Hydropriming was a control priming treatment. Stress impact was evaluated on a basis of growth parameters, whereas defense responses were on a basis of the detoxification activity of glutathione S-transferase (GST), radical scavenging activity, and accumulation of thiols and phenolic compounds. Exposure to metals reduced shoot biomass and height but had no impact on the formation of new shoots. Priming with nitric oxide annihilated the toxic effects of metals. It was related to a sharp increase in GST activity, glutathione accumulation, and boosted radical scavenging activity. In NO-treated shoots level of total phenolic compounds (TPC) and flavonoids remained unaffected, in contrast to other metal-treated shoots. Under combined metal stress and salinity, NO and H2S were capable of restoring or improving growth parameters, as they stimulated radical scavenging activity. Ect and H2S did not exert any effect on metal-treated shoots in comparison to hydropriming. The results revealed the stimulatory role of nitric oxide and low doses of NaCl in combating the toxic effects of complex metal stress in L. maritima. Both NO and NaCl interfered with thiol metabolism and antioxidant activity, whereas NaCl also contributed to the accumulation of phenolic compounds.

A Dual Role of Vanadium in Environmental Systems-Beneficial and Detrimental Effects on Terrestrial Plants and Humans.

The importance of vanadium (V) in the functioning of land systems is extremely diverse, as this element may exert both positive and harmful effects on terrestrial organisms. It recently become considered an element of beneficial character with a range of applications for human welfare. The health-ameliorative properties of this transition element depend on its degree of oxidation and on optimal concentration in the target cells. It was found that a similar relationship applies to vascular plants. However, excessive amounts of vanadium in the environment contaminate the soil and negatively affect the majority of living organisms. A significantly elevated level of V results in the destabilization of plant physiological balance, slowing down the growth of biomass which significantly reduces yield. In turn, low doses of the appropriate vanadium ions can stimulate plant growth and development, exert cytoprotective effects, and effectively enhance the synthesis of some biologically active compounds. We present the scientific achievements of research teams dealing with such topics. The issues discussed concern the role of vanadium in the environment, particular organisms, and highlight its dualistic influence on plants. Achievements in the field of V bioremediation, with the use of appropriately selected microorganisms and plant species, are emphasized.

Priming Strategies for Benefiting Plant Performance under Toxic Trace Metal Exposure.

Combating environmental stress related to the presence of toxic elements is one of the most important challenges in plant production. The majority of plant species suffer from developmental abnormalities caused by an exposure to toxic concentrations of metals and metalloids, mainly Al, As, Cd, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, and Zn. However, defense mechanisms are activated with diverse intensity and efficiency. Enhancement of defense potential can be achieved though exogenously applied treatments, resulting in a higher capability of surviving and developing under stress and become, at least temporarily, tolerant to stress factors. In this review, I present several already recognized as well as novel methods of the priming process called priming, resulting in the so-called "primed state" of the plant organism. Primed plants have a higher capability of surviving and developing under stress, and become, at least temporarily, tolerant to stress factors. In this review, several already recognized as well as novel methods of priming plants towards tolerance to metallic stress are discussed, with attention paid to similarities in priming mechanisms activated by the most versatile priming agents. This knowledge could contribute to the development of priming mixtures to counteract negative effects of multi-metallic and multi-abiotic stresses. Presentation of mechanisms is complemented with information on the genes regulated by priming towards metallic stress tolerance. Novel compounds and techniques that can be exploited in priming experiments are also summarized.

Distinct co-tolerance responses to combined salinity and cadmium exposure in metallicolous and non-metallicolous ecotypes of Silene vulgaris.

This study compared co-tolerance to salinity and cadmium and investigated its mechanisms in a facultative metallophyte Silene vulgaris originating from distinct habitats. Shoots of calamine (Cal) and non-metallicolous (N-Cal) ecotypes grown in vitro were exposed to 10 and 100 mM NaCl, 5 µM CdCl2 and their combinations. Stress effects were evaluated based on growth, oxidative stress parameters, and DNA content and damage. Tolerance mechanisms were assessed by analyzing non-enzymatic antioxidants, osmolytes and ion accumulation. Irrespective of the ecotype, Cd stimulated shoot proliferation (micropropagation coefficients MC = 15.2 and 12.1 for Cal and N-Cal, respectively, growth tolerance index GTI = 148.1 and 156.7%). In Cal ecotype this was attributed to an increase in glutathione content and reorganization of cell membrane structures under Cd exposure, whereas in N-Cal to enhanced synthesis of other non-enzymatic antioxidants, mainly carotenoids and ascorbate. Low salinity stimulated growth of Cal ecotype due to optimizing Cl- content. High salinity inhibited growth, especially in Cal ecotype, where it enhanced DNA damage and disturbed ionic homeostasis. Species-specific reaction to combined salinity and Cd involved a mutual inhibition of Na+, Cl- and Cd2+ uptake. N-Cal ecotype responded to combined stresses by enhancing its antioxidant defense, presumably induced by Cd, whereas the metallicolous ecotype triggered osmotic adjustment. The study revealed that in S. vulgaris Cd application ameliorated metabolic responses to simultaneous salinity exposure. It also shed a light on distinct strategies of coping with combined abiotic stresses in two ecotypes of the species showing high plasticity in environmental conditions.

Insight into mechanisms of multiple stresses tolerance in a halophyte Aster tripolium subjected to salinity and heavy metal stress.

The study aimed at comparing metabolic reactions of a halophyte Aster tripolium to abiotic stresses. Profiling of endogenous phytohormones, soluble carbohydrates and stress-related amino acids was conducted in plants exposed to moderate and high salinity (150 and 300 mM NaCl), and heavy metal salts CdCl2 or PbCl2 (100 and 200 µM). High NaCl and Pb doses inhibited growth of A. tripolium (Stress Tolerance Index STI) of 37% and 32-35%, respectively. The plants tolerated moderate salinity and Cd (STI = 91% and STI = 83-96%, respectively). Toxic metals accumulated mainly in the roots but Cd translocation to the shoots was also observed. The stressors did not affect total concentrations of the main growth promoting phytohormones but we observed enhanced deactivation of auxins and gibberellins, and reduced accumulation of jasmonate precursor. ABA content increased under stress except for moderate salinity. A common reaction was also activation of osmotic adjustment, however it was disparately manifested under salinity and metallic stress. The distinct responses to salinity and metallic stresses involved changes in carbohydrate profile and altered interplay between salicylic acid content and the pool of active gibberellins. The content of active jasmonates diversified A. tripolium reactions to salt excess and each of the heavy metals. This parameter was linked to the accumulation of ethylene precursor. The results of the study can be used to decipher potential co-tolerance mechanism of this halophyte species to multiple environmental stresses.

Evaluation of the protective role of exogenous growth regulators against Ni toxicity in woody shrub Daphne jasminea.

MAIN CONCLUSION: The results provide a significant verification of the activity of exogenously applied phytohormones: gibberellic acid, jasmonic acid, and brassinolide in the modulation of the plant's response to nickel treatment. The study investigated nickel accumulation and its toxicity to Daphne jasminea shoots cultured in vitro with or without exogenous supplementation with phytohormones: gibberellic acid (GA3), jasmonic acid (JA), and brassinolide (BL). The aim was to verify the modulatory effect of exogenous plant growth regulators (PGRs) on plant reaction to Ni excess. The combined action of Ni and PGRs was evaluated at the anatomical, ultrastructural, and biochemical levels. Nickel toxicity was manifested in decreased biomass accretion and growth tolerance index (83-53.6%), attributed to enhanced synthesis of growth inhibitors, mainly abscisic acid. As a defence reaction, endogenous gibberellins accumulated. Exogenous GA3 ameliorated the plant reaction to Ni stress, inducing proliferation and growth rate. Ni tolerance in the presence of GA3 was attributed to peroxisomal reactions that stimulated the synthesis of endogenous JA. In contrast, the application of BL caused enhanced Ni accumulation. Plants suffered from pronounced stress due to massive oxidation. The defence strategy of plants subjected to Ni and BL involved cell wall rearrangements. Exogenous JA stimulated the synthesis of active auxins and salicylic acid, contributing to enhanced mitotic activity within explants. However, JA disturbed the integrity of chloroplasts and lamellar compartments. Our study revealed that an action of exogenous PGRs may either enhance tolerance to Ni or increase metal toxicity in D. jasminea. Particularly in in vitro culture, where explants are subjected to external phytohormonal stimuli, the combined effects of supplemental PGRs may enhance stress and substantially affect plant development. Our results provide a significant verification of exogenous PGRs activity in the modulation of plant response to nickel.

Recent strategies of increasing metal tolerance and phytoremediation potential using genetic transformation of plants.

Avoidance and reduction of soil contamination with heavy metals is one of the most serious global challenges. Nowadays, science offers us new opportunities of utilizing plants to extract toxic elements from the soil by means of phytoremediation. Plant abilities to uptake, translocate, and transform heavy metals, as well as to limit their toxicity, may be significantly enhanced via genetic engineering. This paper provides a comprehensive review of recent strategies aimed at the improvement of plant phytoremediation potential using plant transformation and employing current achievements in nuclear and cytoplasmic genome transformation. Strategies for obtaining plants suitable for effective soil clean-up and tolerant to excessive concentrations of heavy metals are critically assessed. Promising directions in genetic manipulations, such as gene silencing and cis- and intragenesis, are also discussed. Moreover, the ways of overcoming disadvantages of phytoremediation using genetic transformation approachare proposed. The knowledge gathered here could be useful for designing new research aimed at biotechnological improvement of phytoremediation efficiency.

Organic amendments enhance Pb tolerance and accumulation during micropropagation of Daphne jasminea.

The study investigated the effects of organic amendments: pineapple pulp (PP) and agar hydrolyzate (AH), on micropropagation and Pb bioaccumulation and tolerance in a woody shrub Daphne jasminea cultured in vitro. The amendments were analyzed for their content of carbohydrates, phenolic acids, and phytohormones and added at a dose of 10 mL L-1 to the medium containing 1.0 mM lead nitrate. Micropropagation coefficient increased by 10.2-16.6 % in PP and AH variants, respectively. Growth tolerance index increased by 22.9-31.8 % for the shoots and by 60.1-82.4 % for the roots. In the absence of Pb, the additives inhibited multiplication and growth of microplantlets. PP and AH facilitated Pb accumulation in plant organs, especially in the roots. PP enhanced bioconcentration factor and AH improved Pb translocation to the shoots. Adaptation to Pb was associated with increased accumulation of phenolics and higher radical scavenging activity. Medium supplementation, particularly with AH, enhanced antiradical activity of Pb-adapted lines but reduced the content of phenolic compounds. The study results indicated that supplementation with organic amendments may be beneficial in in vitro selection against lead toxicity.