Suramin: Effectiveness of analogues reveals structural features that are important for the potent trypanocidal activity of the drug.

Suramin was the first effective drug for the treatment of human African sleeping sickness. Structural analogues of the trypanocide have previously been shown to be potent inhibitors of several enzymes. Therefore, four suramin analogues lacking the methyl group on the intermediate rings and with different regiochemistry of the naphthalenetrisulphonic acid groups and the phenyl rings were tested to establish whether they exhibited improved antiproliferative activity against bloodstream forms of Trypanosomes brucei compared to the parent compound. The four analogues exhibited low trypanocidal activity and weak inhibition of the antitrypanosomal activity of suramin in competition experiments. This indicates that the strong trypanocidal activity of suramin is most likely due to the presence of methyl groups on its intermediate rings and to the specific regiochemistry of naphthalenetrisulphonic acid groups. These two structural features are also likely to be important for the inhibition mechanism of suramin because DNA distribution and nucleus/kinetoplast configuration analyses suggest that the analogues inhibit mitosis while suramin inhibits cytokinesis.

Development of Highly Sensitive Fluorescent Sensors for Separation-Free Detection and Quantitation Systems of Pepsin Enzyme Applying a Structure-Guided Approach.

Two fluorescent molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) were developed for pepsin enzyme utilising fluorescein and rhodamine b. The main difference between both dyes is the presence of two (diethylamino) groups in the structure of rhodamine b. Consequently, we wanted to investigate the effect of these functional groups on the selectivity and sensitivity of the resulting MIPs. Therefore, two silica-based MIPs for pepsin enzyme were developed using 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane as a functional monomer and tetraethyl orthosilicate as a crosslinker to achieve a one-pot synthesis. Results of our study revealed that rhodamine b dyed MIPs (RMIPs) showed stronger binding, indicated by a higher binding capacity value of 256 mg g-1 compared to 217 mg g-1 for fluorescein dyed MIPs (FMIPs). Moreover, RMIPs showed superior sensitivity in the detection and quantitation of pepsin with a linear range from 0.28 to 42.85 µmol L-1 and a limit of detection (LOD) as low as 0.11 µmol L-1. In contrast, FMIPs covered a narrower range from 0.71 to 35.71 µmol L-1, and the LOD value reached 0.34 µmol L-1, which is three times less sensitive than RMIPs. Finally, the developed FMIPs and RMIPs were applied to a separation-free quantification system for pepsin in saliva samples without interference from any cross-reactors.

Suramin analogues protect cartilage against osteoarthritic breakdown by increasing levels of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases 3 (TIMP-3) in the tissue.

Osteoarthritis is a chronic degenerative joint disease affecting millions of people worldwide, with no disease-modifying drugs currently available to treat the disease. Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases 3 (TIMP-3) is a potential therapeutic target in osteoarthritis because of its ability to inhibit the catabolic metalloproteinases that drive joint damage by degrading the cartilage extracellular matrix. We previously found that suramin inhibits cartilage degradation through its ability to block endocytosis and intracellular degradation of TIMP-3 by low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 1 (LRP1), and analysis of commercially available suramin analogues indicated the importance of the 1,3,5-trisulfonic acid substitutions on the terminal naphthalene rings for this activity. Here we describe synthesis and structure-activity relationship analysis of additional suramin analogues using ex vivo models of TIMP-3 trafficking and cartilage degradation. This showed that 1,3,6-trisulfonic acid substitution of the terminal naphthalene rings was also effective, and that the protective activity of suramin analogues depended on the presence of a rigid phenyl-containing central region, with para/para substitution of these phenyl rings being most favourable. Truncated analogues lost protective activity. The physicochemical characteristics of suramin and its analogues indicate that approaches such as intra-articular injection would be required to develop them for therapeutic use.

A computational chemistry-driven hypothesis on the mode of action of hipposudoric acid and related analogs.

Aim: To elucidate the mode of action of the hipposudoric acid derivatives and identify hit compounds for synthesis. Materials & methods: Structural fragments of known bioactive fluorenes were introduced onto the hipposudoric acid scaffold to yield novel derivatives. The binding motifs of the novel compounds were compared to the pharmacophore of DHFR co-crystallized with methotrexate (MTX). Results: Several of the novel compounds showed binding affinities that exceeded the affinity of the docked endogenous ligand (dihydrofolic acid). Conclusion: This study indicates that compounds 3r12, 3r9, 1s9 and 3r10 are promising candidates for synthesis and pharmacological evaluation.

Fructose malabsorption: causes, diagnosis and treatment.

This review intends to act as an overview of fructose malabsorption (FM) and its role in the aetiology of diseases including, but not limited to, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and infantile colic and the relationship between fructose absorption and the propagation of some cancers. IBS results in a variety of symptoms including stomach pains, cramps and bloating. Patients can be categorised into two groups, depending on whether the patients' experiences either constipation (IBS-C) or diarrhoea (IBS-D). FM has been proposed as a potential cause of IBS-D and other diseases, such as infantile colic. However, our knowledge of FM is limited by our understanding of the biochemistry related to the absorption of fructose in the small intestine and FM's relationship with small intestinal bacterial overgrowth. It is important to consider the dietary effects on FM and most importantly, the quantity of excess free fructose consumed. The diagnosis of FM is difficult and often requires indirect means that may result in false positives. Current treatments of FM include dietary intervention, such as low fermentable oligo-, di-, monosaccharides and polyols diets and enzymatic treatments, such as the use of xylose isomerase. More research is needed to accurately diagnose and effectively treat FM. This review is designed with the goal of providing a detailed outline of the issues regarding the causes, diagnosis and treatment of FM.

Enzyme inhibition as a potential therapeutic strategy to treat COVID-19 infection.

With the emergence of the third infectious and virulent coronavirus within the past two decades, it has become increasingly important to understand how the virus causes infection. This will inform therapeutic strategies that target vulnerabilities in the vital processes through which the virus enters cells. This review identifies enzymes responsible for SARS-CoV-2 viral entry into cells (ACE2, Furin, TMPRSS2) and discuss compounds proposed to inhibit viral entry with the end goal of treating COVID-19 infection. We argue that TMPRSS2 inhibitors show the most promise in potentially treating COVID-19, in addition to being a pre-existing medication with fewer predicted side-effects.

Thiazolidinediones: An In-Depth Study of Their Synthesis and Application to Medicinal Chemistry in the Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus.

2,4-Thiazolidinedione (TZD) is a privileged and highly utilised scaffold for the development of pharmaceutically active compounds. This sulfur-containing heterocycle is a versatile pharmacophore that confers a diverse range of pharmacological activities. TZD has been shown to exhibit biological action towards a vast range of targets interesting to medicinal chemists. In this review, we attempt to provide insight into both the historical conventional and the use of novel methodologies to synthesise the TZD core framework. Further to this, synthetic procedures utilised to substitute the TZD molecule at the activated methylene C5 and N3 position are reviewed. Finally, research into developing clinical agents, which act as modulators of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors gamma (PPARγ), protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B) and aldose reductase 2 (ALR2), are discussed. These are the three most targeted receptors for the treatment of diabetes mellitus (DM).

In silico design of bioisosteric modifications of drugs for the treatment of diabetes.

Aim: To identify virtual bioisosteric replacements of two GPR40 agonists. Materials & methods: Bioinformatic docking of candidate molecules featuring a wide range of carboxylic acid bioisosteres into complex with GPR40 was performed using TAK-875 and GW9508 templates. Results: This study suggests that 2,6-difluorophenol and squaric acid motifs are the preferred bioisosteric groups for conferring GPR40 affinity. Conclusion: This study suggests that compounds 10 and 20 are worthy synthetic targets.

Unearthing novel thiazolidinone building blocks as carboxylic acid bioisosteres.

Aim: Thiazolidinones were prepared as building blocks for the replacement of carboxylic acids. Materials & methods: Chemical syntheses of thiazolidinones were developed. In addition, the drug-likeness of the target compounds was evaluated in silico. Results: The prepared compounds included the novel structure 4; 5-(3-Iodophenylmethylene)-2,4-thiazolidinedione. Conclusion: Exploration of the methods required to synthesize thiazolidinone building blocks was completed. This work allows future generation of bioisosteric analogs of drugs.

Suramin Inhibits Osteoarthritic Cartilage Degradation by Increasing Extracellular Levels of Chondroprotective Tissue Inhibitor of Metalloproteinases 3.

Osteoarthritis is a common degenerative joint disease for which no disease-modifying drugs are currently available. Attempts to treat the disease with small molecule inhibitors of the metalloproteinases that degrade the cartilage matrix have been hampered by a lack of specificity. We aimed to inhibit cartilage degradation by augmenting levels of the endogenous metalloproteinase inhibitor, tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases (TIMP)-3, through blocking its interaction with the endocytic scavenger receptor, low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 1 (LRP1). We discovered that suramin (C51H40N6O23S6) bound to TIMP-3 with a KD value of 1.9 ± 0.2 nM and inhibited its endocytosis via LRP1, thus increasing extracellular levels of TIMP-3 and inhibiting cartilage degradation by the TIMP-3 target enzyme, adamalysin-like metalloproteinase with thrombospondin motifs 5. NF279 (8,8'-[carbonylbis(imino-4,1-phenylenecarbonylimino-4,1-phenylenecarbonylimino)]bis-1,3,5-naphthalenetrisulfonic acid hexasodium salt), a structural analog of suramin, has an increased affinity for TIMP-3 and increased ability to inhibit TIMP-3 endocytosis and protect cartilage. Suramin is thus a promising scaffold for the development of novel therapeutics to increase TIMP-3 levels and inhibit cartilage degradation in osteoarthritis.

Discovery and SAR of 2-arylbenzotriazoles and 2-arylindazoles as potential treatments for Duchenne muscular dystrophy.

Families of 2-arylbenzotriazoles and 2-arylindazoles that show positive effects in screens predictive of endogenous utrophin upregulation have been identified. Synthesis and structure-activity relationships are described leading to compounds with attractive in vitro profiles.

Daily treatment with SMTC1100, a novel small molecule utrophin upregulator, dramatically reduces the dystrophic symptoms in the mdx mouse.

BACKGROUND: Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a lethal, progressive muscle wasting disease caused by a loss of sarcolemmal bound dystrophin, which results in the death of the muscle fibers leading to the gradual depletion of skeletal muscle. There is significant evidence demonstrating that increasing levels of the dystrophin-related protein, utrophin, in mouse models results in sarcolemmal bound utrophin and prevents the muscular dystrophy pathology. The aim of this work was to develop a small molecule which increases the levels of utrophin in muscle and thus has therapeutic potential. METHODOLOGY AND PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We describe the in vivo activity of SMT C1100; the first orally bioavailable small molecule utrophin upregulator. Once-a-day daily-dosing with SMT C1100 reduces a number of the pathological effects of dystrophin deficiency. Treatment results in reduced pathology, better muscle physiology leading to an increase in overall strength, and an ability to resist fatigue after forced exercise; a surrogate for the six minute walk test currently recommended as the pivotal outcome measure in human trials for DMD. CONCLUSIONS AND SIGNIFICANCE: This study demonstrates proof-of-principle for the use of in vitro screening methods in allowing identification of pharmacological agents for utrophin transcriptional upregulation. The best compound identified, SMT C1100, demonstrated significant disease modifying effects in DMD models. Our data warrant the full evaluation of this compound in clinical trials in DMD patients.

Discovery of 2-arylbenzoxazoles as upregulators of utrophin production for the treatment of Duchenne muscular dystrophy.

A series of novel 2-arylbenzoxazoles that upregulate the production of utrophin in murine H2K cells, as assessed using a luciferase reporter linked assay, have been identified. This compound class appears to hold considerable promise as a potential treatment for Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Following the delineation of structure-activity relationships in the series, a number of potent upregulators were identified, and preliminary ADME evaluation is described. These studies have resulted in the identification of 1, a compound that has been progressed to clinical trials.

Quinazoline and benzimidazole MCH-1R antagonists.

We have modified the previously reported 2-aminoquinoline 1 to provide two novel series of MCH-1R antagonists. Representative compounds from the quinazoline and benzimidazole series have been shown to be potent and selective, with promising in vitro eADME profiles.

A virtual screening approach to finding novel and potent antagonists at the melanin-concentrating hormone 1 receptor.

Melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) has been known to be an appetite-stimulating peptide for a number of years. However, it is only recently that MCH has been discovered to be the natural ligand for a previously "orphan" G-protein-coupled receptor, now designated MCH-1R. This receptor has been shown to mediate the effects of MCH on appetite and body weight, and consequently, drug discovery programs have begun to exploit this information in the search for MCH-1R antagonists for the treatment of obesity. In this paper, we report the rapid discovery of multiple, structurally distinct series of MCH-1R antagonists using a variety of virtual screening techniques. The most potent of these compounds (12) demonstrated an IC(50) value of 55 nM in the primary screen and exhibited antagonist properties in a functional cellular assay measuring Ca(2+) release. More potent compounds were identified by follow-up searches around the initial hit. A proposed binding mode for compound 12 in a homology model of the MCH-1R is also presented.

The synthesis and SAR of 2-arylsulfanyl-phenyl piperazinyl acetic acids as glyT-1 inhibitors.

Elevation of glycine levels and activation of the NMDA receptor by inhibition of the glycine transporter 1 (GlyT-1) is a potential strategy for the treatment of schizophrenia. A novel series of GlyT-1 inhibitors have been identified containing the 2-arylsulfanyl-phenylpiperazine motif. The most prominent member of this series, (R)-4-[5-chloro-2-(4-methoxy-phenylsulfanyl)-phenyl]-2-methyl-piperazin-1-yl-acetic acid (31) is a potent glycine transporter-1 inhibitor (IC(50)=150 nM), which elevated glycine levels in rat ventral hippocampus as measured by microdialysis in vivo at doses of 1.2-4.6 mg/kg s.c.

Structure-activity relationships of a novel series of melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) receptor antagonists.

A new series of 2-aminoquinolines has been identified as antagonists of the melanin concentrating hormone receptor (MCH-1R). Syntheses and structure-activity relationships are described leading to a compound having low nanomolar activity against the receptor and demonstrating functional antagonism. Studies also showed that some of the compounds were selective against a range of other G protein-coupled receptors.

Studies on pyrrolopyrimidines as selective inhibitors of multidrug-resistance-associated protein in multidrug resistance.

Multidrug resistance mediated by P-glycoprotein (Pgp) or multidrug-resistance-associated protein (MRP) remains a major obstacle for successful treatment of cancer. Inhibition of Pgp and MRP transport is important for high efficacy of anticancer drugs. While several Pgp inhibitors have entered clinical trials, the development of specific MRP1 inhibitors is still in its infancy. In our screening program, we have identified a pyrrolopyrimidine (4) as a novel and selective MRP1 inhibitor. Subsequent SAR work on the 4-position of the template revealed the phenethylpiperazine side chain as a potent replacement of the benzylthio group of the lead molecule. Introduction of groups at the 2-position seems to have no detrimental effect on activity. Modifications to the nitrile group at the 7-position resulted in the identification of analogues with groups, such as amides, with superior pharmacokinetic profiles. In vivo efficacy has been demonstrated by xenograft studies on selected compounds.

Novel angular benzophenazines: dual topoisomerase I and topoisomerase II inhibitors as potential anticancer agents.

A series of substituted angular benzophenazines were prepared using a new synthetic route via a novel regiocontrolled condensation of 1,2-naphthoquinones and 2,3-diaminobenzoic acids. The synthesis and biological activity of this new series of substituted 8,9-benzo[a]phenazine carboxamide systems are described. The analogues were evaluated against the H69 parental human small cell lung carcinoma cell line and H69/LX4 resistant cell line which overexpresses P-glycoprotein. Selected analogues were evaluated against the COR-L23 parental human non small cell lung carcinoma cell line and the COR-L23/R resistant cell line which overexpresses multidrug resistance protein. This series of novel angular benzophenazines were potent cytotoxic agents in these cell lines and may be able to circumvent multidrug resistance mechanisms which result in the lack of efficacy of many drugs in cancer chemotherapy. These compounds show dual inhibition of topoisomerase I and topoisomerase II and thus target two key enzymes responsible for the topology of DNA that are active at different points in the cell cycle. The introduction of chirality into the carboxamide side chain of these novel benzophenazine carboxamides has resulted in the discovery of a potent enantiospecific series of cytotoxic agents, exemplified by 4-methoxy-benzo[a]phenazine-11-carboxylic acid (2-(dimethylamino)-1-(R)-methyl-ethyl)-amide, XR11576 ((R)-4j' '). In vivo activity has been demonstrated for 4-methoxy-benzo[a]phenazine-11-carboxylic acid (2-(dimethylamino)-1-(R)-methyl-ethyl)-amide, XR11576, after intravenous administration to female mice, and this compound has been selected as a development candidate for further evaluation.