Genetic Characterization of Palyam Serogroup Viruses Isolated in Japan from 1984 to 2018 and Development of a Real-Time RT-PCR Assay for Broad Detection of Palyam Serogroup Viruses and Specific Detection of Chuzan (Kasba) and D'Aguilar Viruses.

We performed whole genome sequencing (WGS) of 15 Palyam serogroup virus (PALV) strains isolated from cattle or Culicoides biting midges in Japan from 1984 to 2018. We found that the PALV strains consisted of Chuzan (Kasba) virus (CHUV), D'Aguilar virus (DAGV), Bunyip Creek virus, and another PALV, Marrakai virus (MARV). The Japanese MARV strains isolated in 1997 were closely related to Australian PALV strains isolated in 1968-1976 in genome segments 2 and 10, but they were most closely related to other Japanese PALV strains in the other genome segments. Our data suggest that the Japanese MARV strains were reassortant viruses between Asian and Australian PALVs. In addition to the WGS, we developed a real-time reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction assay that can broadly detect PALV and specifically detect CHUV and DAGV, utilizing the data obtained by the WGS in this study. We detected the DAGV gene in bovine stillborn fetuses and congenitally abnormal calves in 2019 using the newly developed assay. To our knowledge, this is the first report of isolation of MARV outside of Australia and the first report of detection of PALV in bovine fetuses or calves with congenital abnormality outside of Africa.

Replication of Akabane virus and related orthobunyaviruses in a fetal-bovine-brain-derived cell line.

Akabane virus (AKAV), Aino virus, Peaton virus, Sathuperi virus, and Shamonda virus are arthropod-borne viruses belonging to the order Elliovirales, family Peribunyaviridae, genus Orthobunyavirus. These viruses cause or may cause congenital malformations in ruminants, including hydranencephaly, poliomyelitis, and arthrogryposis, although their pathogenicity may vary among field cases. AKAV may cause relatively severe congenital lesions such as hydranencephaly in calves. Furthermore, strains of AKAV genogroups I and II exhibit different disease courses. Genogroup I strains predominantly cause postnatal viral encephalomyelitis, while genogroup II strains are primarily detected in cases of congenital malformation. However, the biological properties of AKAV and other orthobunyaviruses are insufficiently investigated in hosts in the field and in vitro. Here, we used an immortalized bovine brain cell line (FBBC-1) to investigate viral replication efficiency, cytopathogenicity, and host innate immune responses. AKAV genogroup II and Shamonda virus replicated to higher titers in FBBC-1 cells compared with the other viruses, and only AKAV caused cytopathic effects. These results may be associated with the severe congenital lesions in the brain caused by AKAV genogroup II. AKAV genogroup II strains replicated to higher titers in FBBC-1 cells than AKAV genogroup I strains, suggesting that genogroup II strains replicated more efficiently in fetal brain cells, accounting for the detection of the latter strains mainly in fetal infection cases. Therefore, FBBC-1 cells may serve as a valuable tool for investigating the virulence and tropism of the orthobunyaviruses for bovine neonatal brain tissues in vitro.

Isolation and whole-genome sequence analysis of Balagodu virus in Japan.

Whole-genome sequencing of a virus isolated from Culicoides biting midges in southern Japan in 2020 revealed that it is a strain of Balagodu virus (BLGV; genus Orthobunyavirus; family Peribunyaviridae; order Bunyavirales). A solitary instance of BLGV isolation occurred in India in 1963. All assembled segments comprise complete protein-coding sequences that are similar to those of other orthobunyaviruses. The consensus 3'- and 5'-terminal sequences of orthobunyaviruses' genomic RNAs are also conserved in the Japanese BLGV strain. Here, we update the geographic distribution of BLGV and provide its complete sequence, contributing to the clarification of orthobunyavirus phylogeny.

Congenital malformations caused by Akabane virus in porcine fetuses in southern Japan.

Akabane virus (AKAV) is known as a major teratogenic agent of ruminant fetuses. In this study, we investigated the relationship between porcine abnormal deliveries and AKAV by serology, pathology, and virology investigations using specimens from 16 stillborn fetuses delivered in southern Japan between 2013 and 2015. The major clinical manifestations in stillborn fetuses were hydranencephaly, arthrogryposis, spinal curvature, and both skeletal muscle and subcutaneous edema. Histologic examination of the specimens identified atrophy of skeletal muscle fibers accompanied by adipose replacement. Nonsuppurative encephalomyelitis and decreased neuronal density in the ventral horn of the spinal cord were shown in two separate fetuses, respectively. Neutralizing antibody titers to AKAV were detected in most of the tested fetuses (13/16). The AKAV sequences detected in the affected fetuses in 2013 and 2015 were highly identical and closely related to Japanese AKAV isolates which were isolated in 2013 and sorted into genogroup I of AKAV. Immunohistochemistry visualized AKAV antigens in the neuronal cells of the central nervous system of the fetuses. These findings indicate that AKAV was involved in the birth of abnormal piglets at the affected farm. The clinical manifestations and histopathological features in the stillborn fetuses were very similar to those in ruminant neonates affected by AKAV. To avoid misdiagnosis and to evaluate the precise impact of AKAV on pig reproduction, AKAV should be considered in differential diagnoses of reproductive failures in pigs.

Differential role of NSs genes in the neurovirulence of two genogroups of Akabane virus causing postnatal encephalomyelitis.

Akabane virus (AKAV) is a member of the genus Orthobunyavirus, family Peribunyaviridae. In addition to AKAV strains that cause fetal Akabane disease, which is characterized by abortion in ruminants, some AKAV strains cause postnatal infection characterized by nonsuppurative encephalomyelitis in ruminants. Here, we focused on the NSs protein, a virulence factor for most viruses belonging to the genus Orthobunyavirus, and we hypothesized that this protein would act as a neurovirulence factor in AKAV strains causing postnatal encephalomyelitis. We generated AKAV strains that were unable to produce the NSs protein, derived from two different genogroups, genogroups I and II, and then examined the role of their NSs proteins by inoculating mice intracerebrally with these modified viruses. Our results revealed that the neurovirulence of genogroup II strains is dependent on the NSs protein, whereas that of genogroup I strains is independent of this protein. Notably, infection of primary cultured bovine cells with these viruses suggested that the NSs proteins of both genogroups suppress innate immune-related gene expression with equal efficiency. These results indicate differences in the determinants of virulence of orthobunyaviruses.

Complete genome sequences of Sathuperi and Shamonda viruses isolated in Japan.

Sathuperi virus (SATV) and Shamonda virus (SHAV) (family Peribunyaviridae, genus Orthobunyavirus, species Schmallenberg orthobunyavirus) have been suggested to cause congenital abnormalities in ruminants. In this study, we determined the complete genome sequences of SATV KSB-6/C/02 and SHAV KSB-2/C/08 strains, which were obtained from Culicoides biting midges in Japan, by next-generation sequencing and Sanger sequencing. The 3'- and 5'-untranslated region sequences of the M segment of SHAV KSB-2/C/08 strains are distinctly different from those of SATV KSB-6/C/02 and Schmallenberg viruses. This study provides the genome characterization of Japanese strains of SATV and SHAV and presented the genetic variation in the untranslated regions of Schmallenberg orthobunyavirus M segments.

Complete genome sequences of epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus serotypes 5 and 6 isolated in Japan.

Here, we report the complete genome sequences of epizootic hemorrhagic disease (EHD) virus serotypes 5 (EHDV-5) and 6 (EHDV-6) isolated in the Yaeyama Islands of Okinawa Prefecture, Japan. The EHDV-5 strain, ON-11/E/16, which was isolated in 2016, is, to our knowledge, the second EHDV-5 strain to be isolated after the first was isolated in Australia in 1977. In each of the genome segments, ON-11/E/16 was most closely related to EHDV strains of different serotypes isolated in Australia and Japan. Our results support the idea that various serotypes of EHDV have been circulating while causing reassortment in the Asia-Pacific region. In all genome segments, the EHDV-6 strain, ON-3/E/14, which was isolated in 2014, was highly similar to EHDV-6 strain HG-1/E/15, which was detected in affected cattle during the EHD epidemic in Hyogo prefecture in 2015. Therefore, these two EHDV-6 strains, ON-3/E/14 and HG-1/E/15, may have the same origin. However, it is unclear whether EHDV-6 was transmitted directly between the locations where those strains were isolated/detected (approx. 1,500 km apart) or whether EHDV-6 strains of the same origin entered each location at different times. In addition, we cannot rule out the possibility that EHDV-6 infection has spread unnoticed through asymptomatic cattle in other areas of Japan. Therefore, further investigation into EHDV infection in cattle is necessary for a more detailed understanding of the ecology of EHDV in Japan.

Whole-genome sequence analysis of a novel orthobunyavirus isolated in Japan in the 1980s.

Two viruses isolated from Culicoides biting midges in Japan and preserved in a frozen state for over three decades were genetically characterized by next-generation sequencing. The viruses have a tripartite RNA genome with the typical coding strategy of orthobunyaviruses. They also share a high level of genetic similarity and are thus regarded as isolates of the same virus. Pairwise sequence comparisons and phylogenetic analysis including viruses of the Simbu serogroup demonstrated that the new viruses are members of clade A of this serogroup. In addition, a discrepancy in the phylogenetic trees indicated that a genetic reassortment had occurred in the evolution of the studied viruses. The L protein of the virus reported here showed no more than 94.6% amino acid sequence identity to that of any other Simbu serogroup virus, indicating that it should be regarded as a novel virus according to a criterion for species definition in the genus Orthobunyavirus. Therefore, this novel virus is tentatively named 'Taniyama virus' based on the location where the infected midges were collected.

Histopathological, Immunohistochemical and In-Situ Hybridization Findings in Suckling Rats Experimentally Infected With Akabane Genogroups â and â ¡, Aino and Peaton Viruses.

Akabane, Aino and Peaton viruses are closely related arthropod-borne viruses in the genus Orthobunyavirus of the family Peribunyaviridae that can cause congenital abnormalities in cattle, sheep and goats. East Asian Akabane virus strains are subdivided into genogroups Ⅰ and Ⅱ, and the former can also cause non-suppurative encephalomyelitis in post-natal animals. Specific detection of the infecting virus in tissues is essential for accurate diagnosis. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) has been used to identify viral antigen but cannot always detect specific viruses due to potential cross-reactivity of the primary antisera. We compared in-situ hybridization (ISH), based on the use of cocktail probe sets targeted at the RNA of each virus, with IHC for the detection of the specific viruses in tissues of suckling rats inoculated intracerebrally with Akabane (KM-1 or OBE-1 strains), Aino or Peaton viruses at 3 or 7 days of age. Most inoculated rats developed severe neurological signs and histopathological brain lesions including necrosis, spongy degeneration and non-suppurative inflammation. A rabbit polyclonal antiserum immunolabelled antigen of all three viruses within the lesions, whereas ISH specifically detected RNA of each individual virus. The distribution of viral RNA was comparable to that of viral antigens, but tended to be more widespread, especially in immature nervous tissue. Viral antigen and RNA were detected in skeletal muscle and heart of the rats infected with the KM-1 strain of Akabane virus but not with any of the other viruses. This study demonstrates the value of ISH detection of these viruses in a rat model and may prove useful for clarification of the pathogenesis of post-natal arbovirus infection.

Isolation of Culicoides- and Mosquito-Borne Orbiviruses in the Southwestern Islands of Japan Between 2014 and 2019.

The circulation of arboviruses in livestock ruminants has often gone unrecognized owing to the fact that a significant percentage of arboviruses probably induce subclinical infections and/or negligible symptoms in infected animals. To determine the current situation of arbovirus circulation in the Yaeyama Islands, attempts to isolate viruses from bovine blood samples collected between 2014 and 2019 have been made. In total, 308 blood samples were collected during the study period, and 43 of them induced cytopathic effects (CPEs) in cell cultures. The identification of the CPE agents was performed by reported RT-PCR assays and a high-throughput analysis with a next-generation sequencing platform. The obtained viruses consisted of an orthobunyavirus (Peaton virus), Culicoides-borne orbiviruses (bluetongue virus serotypes 12 and 16, epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus [EHDV] serotypes 5, 6, and 7, D'Aguilar virus, and Bunyip Creek virus), and potential mosquito-borne orbiviruses (Yunnan orbivirus, Guangxi orbivirus, and Yonaguni orbivirus). Most of the orbiviruses were recovered from washed blood cells with mosquito cell cultures, suggesting that this combination was more efficient than other combinations such as plasma/blood cells and hamster cell lines. This marked the first time that the isolation of EHDV serotypes 5 and 6 and three potential mosquito-borne orbiviruses was recorded in Japan, showing a greater variety of orbiviruses on the islands than previously known. Genetic analysis of the isolated orbiviruses suggested that the Yaeyama Islands and its neighboring regions were epidemiologically related. Some of the viruses, especially the potential mosquito-borne orbiviruses, were isolated during several consecutive years, indicating their establishment on the islands.

Isolation of epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus serotype 7 from cattle showing fever in Japan in 2016 and improvement of a reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction assay to detect epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus.

Epizootic hemorrhagic disease (EHD) is an arthropod-borne disease of wild and domestic ruminants caused by the EHD virus (EHDV). To date, seven EHDV serotypes have been identified. In Japan, strain Ibaraki of EHDV serotype 2 has caused outbreaks of Ibaraki disease in cattle. In addition, EHDV serotype 7 (EHDV-7) has caused large-scale EHD epizootics. In mid-September 2016, eight cattle at a breeding farm in Fukuoka Prefecture, Japan developed fever. Since EHDV-7 was detected in sentinel cattle in western Japan in 2016, we suspected that the cause of this fever might be an EHDV-7 infection. In this study, we tested cattle for EHDV-7 and some other viruses. Consequently, EHDV was isolated from washed blood cells collected from three of the eight cattle, and genetic analysis of genome segment 2 revealed that this isolate was EHDV-7. Moreover, all affected cattle tested positive for anti-EHDV-7 neutralizing antibodies. Our results suggest that the fever was caused by EHDV-7 infection. In addition, we modified a conventional reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction assay for the specific detection of EHDV. This modified assay could detect various strains of EHDV isolated in Japan, Australia, and North America. Furthermore, the assay permitted the detection of EHDV-7 in blood cells collected from seven of the eight cattle. We believe that this modified assay will be a useful tool for the diagnosis of EHD.

Genomic analysis of putative novel serotypes of Tibet orbivirus isolated in Japan.

Tibet orbivirus (TIBOV) was initially isolated in Tibet in 2009 and subsequently in Guangdong, Hunan, and Yunnan, China. We document the first isolation of TIBOV outside of China: two TIBOV isolates from Culicoides collected in 2009 and 2010 in Kagoshima, Japan. Their complete genome sequences were also determined. Our results suggest that the two virus isolates are of novel serotypes, evident by variability within genome segment 2 encoding VP2. These new putative TIBOV serotypes will help with future virus surveillance and with the evaluation of its potential to cause disease in domestic ruminants.

Identification and characterization of a novel orbivirus, Yonaguni orbivirus, isolated from cattle on the westernmost island of Japan.

A novel orbivirus (genus Orbivirus, family Reoviridae), designated Yonaguni orbivirus (YONOV), was isolated from bovine blood collected on a subtropical island of Japan in 2015. The YONOV genome (20,054 nucleotides in total) has a coding arrangement similar to those of mosquito-borne orbiviruses. YONOV has a close genetic relationship to mosquito-borne orbiviruses, especially to Mobuck virus (MBV), which was isolated in North America. However, YONOV and MBV share less than 74% nucleotide sequence identity in the major subcore protein (T2) coding sequence, which satisfies the criterion for species demarcation. It is still uncertain whether YONOV should be assigned to a novel species in the genus Orbivirus.

Complete Genome Sequences of Two Akabane Virus Strains Causing Bovine Postnatal Encephalomyelitis in Japan.

Akabane virus (AKAV) (genus Orthobunyavirus, family Peribunyaviridae) is an arthropod-borne virus that causes congenital abnormalities in ruminants. Here, we report the complete genome sequences of two AKAV strains causing nonsuppurative encephalomyelitis in cattle by postnatal infection in Japan.

Endemic and Emerging Arboviruses in Domestic Ruminants in East Asia.

Epizootic congenital abnormalities caused by Akabane, Aino, and Chuzan viruses have damaged the reproduction of domestic ruminants in East Asia for many years. In the past, large outbreaks of febrile illness related to bovine ephemeral fever and Ibaraki viruses severely affected the cattle industry in that region. In recent years, vaccines against these viruses have reduced the occurrence of diseases, although the viruses are still circulating and have occasionally caused sporadic and small-scaled epidemics. Over a long-term monitoring period, many arboviruses other than the above-mentioned viruses have been isolated from cattle and Culicoides biting midges in Japan. Several novel arboviruses that may infect ruminants (e.g., mosquito- and tick-borne arboviruses) were recently reported in mainland China based on extensive surveillance. It is noteworthy that some are suspected of being associated with cattle diseases. Malformed calves exposed to an intrauterine infection with orthobunyaviruses (e.g., Peaton and Shamonda viruses) have been observed. Epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus serotype 6 caused a sudden outbreak of hemorrhagic disease in cattle in Japan. Unfortunately, the pathogenicity of many other viruses in ruminants has been uncertain, although these viruses potentially affect livestock production. As global transportation grows, the risk of an accidental incursion of arboviruses is likely to increase in previously non-endemic areas. Global warming will also certainly affect the distribution and active period of vectors, and thus the range of virus spreads will expand to higher-latitude regions. To prevent anticipated damages to the livestock industry, the monitoring system for arboviral circulation and incursion should be strengthened; moreover, the sharing of information and preventive strategies will be essential in East Asia.

Surveillance of Culicoides biting midges in northern Honshu, Japan, during the period of Akabane virus spread.

A surveillance of Culicoides biting midges with light suction traps was conducted in the northern region of Honshu, main island of Japan, during the summers and autumns of 2009 and 2010. A total of 106 trap collections across 37 cattle farms were investigated for the structure and distribution of Culicoides species. Forty-thousand and one hundred forty-nine specimens of Culicoides biting midges were identified at the species level, and ≥19 species were included in the specimens. Culicoides oxystoma, which is a known major vector of Akabane virus (AKAV), appeared not to have expanded in northern Honshu during the surveillance. Of the potential AKAV vectors suggested by a previous laboratory experiment, C. tainanus and C. punctatus widely infested cowsheds across northern Honshu. The AKAV circulation was confirmed by serological surveillance of sentinel cattle in northern Honshu during the summer and autumn of 2010 and, consequently, >200 calves affected by the virus were identified as of spring 2011. Our surveillance demonstrated that C. tainanus and C. punctatus were widely spread and often dominated at cattle farms in/around the seroconverted regions, and our results thus suggest that these species played a critical role in the AKAV transmission in 2010. Because the distribution ranges of C. tainanus and C. punctatus cover almost all of mainland Japan, a potential risk of AKAV transmission might be expected even in areas outside the range of C. oxystoma.

Serological evidence suggests that several Simbu serogroup viruses circulated in Israel.

Viruses of the Simbu serogroup are arboviruses that are known to cause outbreaks of abortion, stillbirth and congenitally deformed neonates. This study presents the results of antibody screening of Simbu serogroup viruses in heifers born in Israel after October 2013, and in adult milking cows born before May 2012. Thirteen dairy cattle farms in five regions, and one sheep flock, entered this study. Serum samples that were found to be positive by ELISA were further tested by specific virus- neutralization test against a panel of Simbu serogroup viruses including Akabane, Aino, Sathuperi, Shamonda, and Peaton viruses. Antibody detection in lactating adult cows revealed that several viruses were circulating in Israel between 2008-2014. Moreover, during autumn 2014 the heifers became serum-positive after being exposed to more than one Simbu serogroup virus concurrently. The results of this study shed new light on Simbu virus infections in Israel, and may contribute to the epidemiology of the Simbu serogroup around the Mediterranean Basin in general.

Oral Susceptibility of Japanese Culicoides (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) Species to Akabane Virus.

To test their virus susceptibility and capacity as transmission vectors, Japanese Culicoides species were artificially fed a mixture of Akabane virus (AKAV) and bovine blood, and virus recovery was attempted from infected midges 9-11 d post-exposure. Culicoides tainanus, C. punctatus, C. humeralis, C. jacobsoni, C. oxystoma, and C. asiana were found to be orally susceptible to AKAV. Virus titers in single infected midges of C. tainanus, C. oxystoma, C. punctatus, and C. jacobsoni ranged from 100.75 to 104.0 TCID50 (tissue culture infectious dose). The titers in the infected C. oxystoma were significantly higher than those in the other infected species. Viral RNA was detected from both midges testing positive and those testing negative for infectious virus particles, but the viral RNA copies in the infectious virus-negative midges were significantly lower than those in the infectious virus-positive midges. Lower viral amplification, limited dissemination or both caused by tissue barriers might occur in infected midges from which infectious viruses were undetectable. A fully disseminated infection was developed in orally infected C. oxystoma and C. tainanus. This finding indicates their capacity to transmit AKAV, assuming that salivary gland barriers have limited effects on viral entry to and replication in salivary gland tissue. This result also suggests that the other orally susceptible species are potentially competent for AKAV transmission and would be considered active vectors of its spread.

First genomic detection of Peaton virus in a calf with hydranencephaly in Israel.

Simbu serogroup are arbo- viruses which are mainly transmitted by Culicoides. Two members of the Simbu serogroup, Akabane and Shuni viruses, have been isolated from congenitally malformed ruminants in Israel. A recent serosurvey revealed that Israeli ruminants have been exposed to several additional Simbu viruses, including Shamonda and Sathuperi that seems to be circulating in Israel. In April 2017, an apparently healthy one-month-old male calf was transferred to the Kimron Veterinary Institute. A few days later, the calf was reported to be slow to respond to its surroundings and was not able to feed on its own. Blindness was observed upon clinical examination. RNA of the small, medium and large segments of Simbu serogroup viruses were amplified and sequenced from the testis tissues and from the Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). During post-mortem examination, hydranencephaly was defined. Phylogenetic analysis of all three segments of Simbu serogroup viruses showed that the sequences detected in the Israeli calf were virtually identical to Peaton virus (PEAV). PEAV was also detected in two pools of Culicoides imicola trapped at two different locations in Israel. This is the first genomic detection of PEAV outside Australia and Japan. These results are of epidemiological significance, as they demonstrate that PEAV is circulating in Israel and affects cattle. Consequently, these results are also of relevance to a potential spread of Simbu serogroup viruses into Europe.