FoxC1 activates limbal epithelial stem cells following corneal epithelial debridement.

Limbal epithelial stem cells are not only critical for corneal epithelial homeostasis but also have the capacity to change from a relatively quiescent mitotic phenotype to a rapidly proliferating cell in response to population depletion following corneal epithelial wounding. Pax6+/- mice display many abnormalities including corneal vascularization and these aberrations are consistent with a limbal stem cell deficiency (LSCD) phenotype. FoxC1 has an inhibitory effect on corneal avascularity and a positive role in stem cell maintenance in many tissues. However, the role of FoxC1 in limbal epithelial stem cells remains unknown. To unravel FoxC1's role(s) in limbal epithelial stem cell homeostasis, we utilized an adeno-associated virus (AAV) vector to topically deliver human FOXC1 proteins into Pax6 +/- mouse limbal epithelium. Under unperturbed conditions, overexpression of FOXC1 in the limbal epithelium had little significant change in differentiation (PAI-2, Krt12) and proliferation (BrdU, Ki67). Conversely, such overexpression resulted in a marked increase in the expression of putative limbal epithelial stem cell markers, N-cadherin and Lrig1. After corneal injuries in Pax6 +/- mice, FOXC1 overexpression enhanced the behavior of limbal epithelial stem cells from quiescence to a highly proliferative status. Overall, the treatment of AAV8-FOXC1 may be beneficial to the function of limbal epithelial stem cells in the context of a deficiency of Pax6 function.

Eph signaling is regulated by miRNA-210: Implications for corneal epithelial repair.

A distinct boundary exists between the progenitor cells in the basal limbal epithelium and the more differentiated corneal epithelial basal cells. We have shown that reciprocal expression patterns of EphA2 and Ephrin-A1 are likely to contribute to normal limbal-corneal epithelial compartmentalization as well as play a role in response to injury. How this signaling axis is regulated remains unclear. We have demonstrated that microRNAs (miRNAs) play critical roles in corneal epithelial wound healing and several miRNAs (e.g. miR-210) have been predicted to target ephrins. Previous expression profiling experiments demonstrated that miR-210 is prominently expressed in corneal epithelial cells. RNA-seq data acquired from miR-210-depleted HCECs showed up-regulation of genes involved in cellular migration. In addition, miR-210 is decreased after corneal injury while EphA2 is increased. Moreover, antago-210-treated HCECs markedly enhanced wound closure in a scratch wound assay. Antago-210 treatment resulted in increased EphA2 protein levels as well as pS897-EphA2, the pro-migratory form of EphA2. As expected, Ephrin-A1 levels were reduced, while levels of a well-known target of miR-210, Ephrin-A3, were increased by antago-210 treatment. The increase in migration with antago-210 could be inhibited by Ephrin-A1 overexpression, Ephrin-A1-Fc treatment or siRNA depletion of EphA2. However, depletion of Ephrin-A3 did not have effects on the antago-210-induced increase in migration. In addition, Ephrin-A1 overexpression and siEphA2 dampened EGFR signaling, which is increased by antago-210. Our data clearly demonstrate a link between miR-210 and EphA2/Ephrin-A1 signaling that regulates, in part, corneal epithelial migration. This interaction might potentially control the limbal-corneal epithelial boundary.

Ciliogenesis and autophagy are coordinately regulated by EphA2 in the cornea to maintain proper epithelial architecture.

PURPOSE: To understand the relationship between ciliogenesis and autophagy in the corneal epithelium. METHODS: siRNAs for EphA2 or PLD1 were used to inhibit protein expression in vitro. Morpholino-anti-EphA2 was used to knockdown EphA2 in Xenopus skin. An EphA2 knockout mouse was used to conduct loss of function studies. Autophagic vacuoles were visualized by contrast light microscopy. Autophagy flux, was measured by LC3 turnover and p62 protein levels. Immunostaining and confocal microscopy were conducted to visualize cilia in cultured cells and in vivo. RESULTS: Loss of EphA2 (i) increased corneal epithelial thickness by elevating proliferative potential in wing cells, (ii) reduced the number of ciliated cells, (iii) increased large hollow vacuoles, that could be rescued by BafA1; (iv) inhibited autophagy flux and (v) increased GFP-LC3 puncta in the mouse corneal epithelium. This indicated a role for EphA2 in stratified epithelial assembly via regulation of proliferation as well as a positive role in both ciliogenesis and end-stage autophagy. Inhibition of PLD1, an EphA2 interacting protein that is a critical regulator of end-stage autophagy, reversed the accumulation of vacuoles, and the reduction in the number of ciliated cells due to EphA2 depletion, suggesting EphA2 regulation of both end-stage autophagy and ciliogenesis via PLD1. PLD1 mediated rescue of ciliogenesis by EphA2 depletion was blocked by BafA1, placing autophagy between EphA2 signaling and regulation of ciliogenesis. CONCLUSION: Our findings demonstrate a novel role for EphA2 in regulating both autophagy and ciliogenesis, processes that are essential for proper corneal epithelial homeostasis.

The ACE2-deficient mouse: A model for a cytokine storm-driven inflammation.

Angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) plays an important role in inflammation, which is attributable at least, in part, to the conversion of the pro-inflammatory angiotensin (Ang) II peptide into angiotensin 1-7 (Ang 1-7), a peptide which opposes the actions of AngII. ACE2 and AngII are present in many tissues but information on the cornea is lacking. We observed that mice deficient in the Ace2 gene (Ace2-/- ), developed a cloudy cornea phenotype as they aged. Haze occupied the central cornea, accompanied by corneal edema and neovascularization. In severe cases with marked chronic inflammation, a cell-fate switch from a transparent corneal epithelium to a keratinized, stratified squamous, psoriasiform-like epidermis was observed. The stroma contained a large number of CD11c, CD68, and CD3 positive cells. Corneal epithelial debridement experiments in young ACE2-deficient mice showed normal appearing corneas, devoid of haze. We hypothesized, however, that these mice are "primed" for a corneal inflammatory response, which once initiated, would persist. In vitro studies reveal that interleukins (IL-1a, IL-1b), chemokines (CCL2, CXCL8), and TNF-α, are all significantly elevated, resulting in a cytokine storm-like phenotype. This phenotype could be partially rescued by treatment with the AngII type 1 receptor (AT1R) antagonist, losartan, suggesting that the observed effect was mediated by AngII acting on its main receptor. Since the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) utilizes human ACE2 as the receptor for entry with subsequent downregulation of ACE2, corneal inflammation in Ace2-/- mice may have a similar mechanism with that in COVID-19 patients. Thus the Ace2-/- cornea, because of easy accessibility, may provide an attractive model to explore the molecular mechanisms, immunological changes, and treatment modalities in patients with COVID-19.

Autophagy plays a positive role in induction of epidermal proliferation.

Autophagy is a multistage catabolic process that mediates stress responses. However, the role of autophagy in epidermal proliferation, particularly under conditions when the epidermis becomes "activated" (hyperproliferative), remains unclear. We have shown that inhibition of Beclin 1, a key activator in the initiation phase of autophagy, attenuates imiquimod (IMQ)-induced epidermal hyperplasia in adult mice as well as naturally occurring hyperproliferation in neonatal mouse epidermis. Inhibition of Beclin 1 did not change the levels of several key inflammatory molecules or the numbers of immune cells in lesional skins. This indicates that autophagy does not affect inflammatory regulators in IMQ-treated mouse skin. Bioinformatic analysis combined with gene expression quantitative assays, revealed that a deficiency in autophagy decreases the expression of PDZ Binding Kinase (PBK), a regulator of the cell cycle, in mouse epidermis and human epidermal keratinocytes (HEKs). Interestingly, the decrease in PBK results in inhibition of proliferation in HEKs and such reduced proliferation can be rescued by activation of p38, the downstream signaling of PBK. Collectively, autophagy plays a positive role in epidermal proliferation, which is in part via regulating PBK expression.

FIH-1 engages novel binding partners to positively influence epithelial proliferation via p63.

Whereas much is known about the genes regulated by ΔNp63α in keratinocytes, how ΔNp63α is regulated is less clear. During studies with the hydroxylase, factor inhibiting hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (FIH-1), we observed increases in epidermal ΔNp63α expression along with proliferative capacity in a conditional FIH-1 transgenic mouse. Conversely, loss of FIH-1 in vivo and in vitro attenuated ΔNp63α expression. To elucidate the FIH-1/p63 relationship, BioID proteomics assays identified FIH-1 binding partners that had the potential to regulate p63 expression. FIH-1 interacts with two previously unknown partners, Plectin1 and signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1) leading to the regulation of ΔNp63α expression. Two known interactors of FIH-1, apoptosis-stimulating of P53 protein 2 (ASPP2) and histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1), were also identified. Knockdown of ASPP2 upregulated ΔNp63α and reversed the decrease in ΔNp63α by FIH-1 depletion. Additionally, FIH-1 regulates growth arrest and DNA damage-45 alpha (GADD45α), a negative regulator of ΔNp63α by interacting with HDAC1. GADD45α knockdown rescued reduction in ΔNp63α by FIH-1 depletion. Collectively, our data reveal that FIH-1 positively regulates ΔNp63α in keratinocytes via variety of signaling partners: (a) Plectin1/STAT1, (b) ASPP2, and (c) HDAC1/GADD45α signaling pathways.

HDL nanoparticles have wound healing and anti-inflammatory properties and can topically deliver miRNAs.

microRNAs regulate numerous biological processes, making them potential therapeutic agents. Problems with delivery and stability of these molecules have limited their usefulness as treatments. We demonstrate that synthetic high-density lipoprotein nanoparticles (HDL NPs) topically applied to the intact ocular surface are taken up by epithelial and stromal cells. microRNAs complexed to HDL NPs (miR-HDL NPs) are similarly taken up by cells and tissues and retain biological activity. Topical treatment of diabetic mice with either HDL NPs or miR-HDL NPs significantly improved corneal re-epithelialization following wounding compared with controls. Mouse corneas with alkali burn-induced inflammation, topically treated with HDL NPs, displayed clinical, morphological and immunological improvement. These results should yield a novel HDL NP-based eye drop for patients with compromised wound healing ability (diabetics) and/or corneal inflammatory diseases (e.g. dry eye).

Single-Cell RNA Transcriptome Helps Define the Limbal/Corneal Epithelial Stem/Early Transit Amplifying Cells and How Autophagy Affects This Population.

Purpose: Single-cell RNA-sequencing (scRNA-seq) was used to interrogate the relatively rare stem (SC) and early transit amplifying (TA) cell populations in limbal/corneal epithelia from wild-type and autophagy-compromised mice. Methods: We conducted scRNA-seq on ocular anterior segmental tissue from wild-type and beclin 1-deficient (beclin1+/-) mice, using a 10X Gemomics pipeline. Cell populations were distinguished by t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding. Seurat analysis was conducted to compare gene expression profiles between these two groups of mice. Differential protein expression patterns were validated by immunofluorescence staining and immunoblotting. Results: Unbiased clustering detected 10 distinct populations: three clusters of mesenchymal and seven clusters of epithelial cells, based on their unique molecular signatures. A discrete group of mesenchymal cells expressed genes associated with corneal stromal SCs. We identified three limbal/corneal epithelial cell subpopulations designated as stem/early TA, mature TA, and differentiated corneal epithelial cells. Thioredoxin-interacting protein and PDZ-binding kinase (PBK) were identified as novel regulators of stem/early TA cell quiescence. PBK arrested corneal epithelial cells in G2/M phase of the cell cycle. Beclin1+/- mice displayed a decrease in proliferation-associated (Ki67, Lrig1) and stress-response (H2ax) genes. The most increased gene in beclin1+/- mice was transcription factor ATF3, which negatively regulates limbal epithelial cell proliferation. Conclusions: Establishment of a comprehensive atlas of genes expressed by stromal and epithelial cells from limbus and cornea forms the foundation for unraveling regulatory networks among these distinct tissues. Similarly, scRNA-seq profiling of the anterior segmental epithelia from wild-type and autophagy-deficient mice provides new insights into how autophagy influences proliferation in these tissues.

MicroRNAs-103/107 Regulate Autophagy in the Epidermis.

We have shown that microRNAs-103 and -107 (miRs-103/107) positively regulate end-stage autophagy by ensuring dynamin activity in cultured keratinocytes. Most work in end-stage autophagy has been conducted using in vitro model systems. In vivo regulation of end-stage autophagy in epidermis remains unknown. Here, we used antagomirs to subcutaneously knock down miR-107 in the skin; conversely, we delivered miR-107 mimic subcutaneously via in vivo transfection to increase this miR. We found that antagomir-107 treatment in epidermis: (i) depleted endogenous miR-107; (ii) increased GFP-LC3 puncta in epidermal basal layers of GFP-LC3 transgenic mice, indicative of an accumulation of autophagosomes; (iii) inhibited LC3 turnover and increased p62, suggesting an inhibition of autophagy flux; and (iv) increased phosphorylated dynamin (p-dynamin, an inactive form), a key enzyme in end-stage autophagy. Conversely, miR-107 mimic treatment in mouse epidermis: decreased GFP-LC3 puncta in basal layer, as well as p62 protein levels; and diminished p-dynamin, indicative of activation of this enzyme. In human epidermal keratinocytes, antagos-103/107 cause the formation of large vacuoles and an increase in p-dynamin, which can be rescued by inhibition of protein kinase C pathway. Collectively, these results suggest that the miR-103/107 family has a critical role in regulating end-stage autophagy in mouse epidermis via PLD1/2-protein kinase C-dynamin pathway.

miR-184 exhibits angiostatic properties via regulation of Akt and VEGF signaling pathways.

Corneal avascularity is critical for achieving transparency necessary for proper transmission of light to the lens and visual acuity. Although much is known about angiogenesis and angiostasis, the precise regulation of these processes in the cornea is unclear. MicroRNA (miR)-184, the most abundant corneal epithelial miRNA, has been suggested to function in corneal angiostasis by altering VEGF signaling; however, the mechanism(s) underlying this regulation have not been addressed. Using a combination of in vitro and in vivo assays to evaluate angiogenesis, we demonstrated that human limbal epithelial keratinocytes (HLEKs) engineered to overexpress miR-184 secreted lower amounts of angiogenic mitogens. Human dermal microvascular cells exposed to conditioned medium from miR-184-overexpressing HLEKs were less proliferative and failed to seal linear scratch wounds. The in vivo Matrigel plug assay showed that conditioned medium from miR-184-expressing HLEKs elicited a lesser degree of neovascularization compared with controls. We found that miR-184 directly targets and represses the proangiogenic factors, friend of Gata 2 (FOG2), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-ß, and phosphatidic acid phosphatase 2b (PPAP2B). FOG2 regulates VEGF expression, whereas PDGF-ß and PPAP2B regulate Akt activity. By attenuating both VEGF and Akt signaling, miR-184 acts as a broad-spectrum negative regulator of corneal angiogenesis.-Park, J. K., Peng, H., Yang, W., Katsnelson, J., Volpert, O., Lavker, R. M. miR-184 exhibits angiostatic properties via regulation of Akt and VEGF signaling pathways.

MicroRNAs-103/107 coordinately regulate macropinocytosis and autophagy.

Macropinocytosis, by which cells ingest large amounts of fluid, and autophagy, the lysosome-based catabolic process, involve vesicular biogenesis (early stage) and turnover (end stage). Much is known about early-stage events; however, our understanding of how the end stages of these processes are governed is incomplete. Here we demonstrate that the microRNA-103/107(miR-103/107) family, which is preferentially expressed in the stem cell-enriched limbal epithelium, coordinately regulates aspects of both these activities. Loss of miR-103/107 causes dysregulation of macropinocytosis with the formation of large vacuoles, primarily through up-regulation of Src, Ras, and Ankfy1. Vacuole accumulation is not a malfunction of early-stage autophagy; rather, miR-103/107 ensure proper end-stage autophagy by regulating diacylglycerol/protein kinase C and cyclin-dependent kinase 5 signaling, which enables dynamin to function in vacuole clearance. Our findings unveil a key biological function for miR-103/107 in coordinately suppressing macropinocytosis and preserving end-stage autophagy, thereby contributing to maintenance of a stem cell-enriched epithelium.

MicroRNAs Enhance Keratinocyte Proliferative Capacity in a Stem Cell-Enriched Epithelium.

MicroRNAs are critical regulators of stem cell behavior. The miR-103/107 family is preferentially expressed in the stem cell-enriched corneal limbal epithelium and plays an important role in coordinating several intrinsic characteristics of limbal epithelial stem cells. To elucidate further the mechanisms by which miRs-103/107 function in regulating limbal epithelial stem cells, we investigate the global effects of miRs-103/107 on gene expression in an unbiased manner. Using antagomirs-103/107, we knocked down endogenous miRs-103/107 in keratinocytes and conducted an mRNA profiling study. We show that miRs-103/107 target mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase 7 (MAP3K7) and thereby negatively regulate the p38/AP-1 pathway, which directs epithelial cells towards a differentiated state. Pharmacological inhibition of p38 increases holoclone colony formation, a measure of proliferative capacity. This suggests that the negative regulation of p38 by miRs-103/107 contributes to enhanced proliferative capacity, which is a hallmark of stem cells. Since miRs-103/107 also promote increased holoclone colony formation by regulating JNK activation through non-canonical Wnt signaling, we believe that this microRNA family preserves "stemness" by mediating the crosstalk between the Wnt/JNK and MAP3K7/p38/AP-1 pathways.

microRNA-103/107 Family Regulates Multiple Epithelial Stem Cell Characteristics.

The stem cell niche is thought to affect cell cycle quiescence, proliferative capacity, and communication between stem cells and their neighbors. How these activities are controlled is not completely understood. Here we define a microRNA family (miRs-103/107) preferentially expressed in the stem cell-enriched limbal epithelium that regulates and integrates these stem cell characteristics. miRs-103/107 target the ribosomal kinase p90RSK2, thereby arresting cells in G0/G1 and contributing to a slow-cycling phenotype. Furthermore, miRs-103/107 increase the proliferative capacity of keratinocytes by targeting Wnt3a, which enhances Sox9 and YAP1 levels and thus promotes a stem cell phenotype. This miRNA family also regulates keratinocyte cell-cell communication by targeting: (a) the scaffolding protein NEDD9, preserving E-cadherin-mediated cell adhesion; and (b) the tyrosine phosphatase PTPRM, which negatively regulates connexin 43-based gap junctions. We propose that such regulation of cell communication and adhesion molecules maintains the integrity of the stem cell niche ultimately preserving self-renewal, a hallmark of epithelial stem cells.

FIH-1 disrupts an LRRK1/EGFR complex to positively regulate keratinocyte migration.

Factor inhibiting hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (FIH-1; official symbol HIF1AN) is a hydroxylase that negatively regulates hypoxia-inducible factor 1α but also targets other ankyrin repeat domain-containing proteins such as Notch receptor to limit epithelial differentiation. We show that FIH-1 null mutant mice exhibit delayed wound healing. Importantly, in vitro scratch wound assays demonstrate that the positive role of FIH-1 in migration is independent of Notch signaling, suggesting that this hydroxylase targets another ankyrin repeat domain-containing protein to positively regulate motogenic signaling pathways. Accordingly, FIH-1 increases epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) signaling, which in turn enhances keratinocyte migration via mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway, leading to extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 activation. Our studies identify leucine-rich repeat kinase 1 (LRRK1), a key regulator of the EGFR endosomal trafficking and signaling, as an FIH-1 binding partner. Such an interaction prevents the formation of an EGFR/LRRK1 complex, necessary for proper EGFR turnover. The identification of LRRK1 as a novel target for FIH-1 provides new insight into how FIH-1 functions as a positive regulator of epithelial migration.

FIH-1/c-kit signaling: a novel contributor to corneal epithelial glycogen metabolism.

PURPOSE: Corneal epithelial cells have large stores of glycogen, which serve as their primary energy source. Recently, we demonstrated that factor-inhibiting hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (FIH-1) diminished glycogen stores in vitro and in vivo, working through the Akt/Glycogen Synthase Kinase (GSK)-3ß pathway. In this study we investigated the relationship between FIH-1 and c-kit as it pertains to limbal and corneal epithelial glycogen stores. METHODS: Limbal and corneal epithelia from wild-type FIH-1(-/-) and Kit(W/Wv) mice were stained with periodic acid Schiff (PAS) to detect glycogen. RNA samples prepared from laser-capture microdissected populations of limbal epithelium were subjected to real-time quantitative PCR to determine c-kit ligand expression. Submerged cultures of primary human corneal epithelial keratinocytes (HCEKs) transduced with FIH-1 were treated with c-kit ligand to establish further a FIH-1/c-kit interaction via Western analysis. Akt phosphorylation was assessed by Western blotting. RESULTS: The limbal epithelial cells of FIH-1 null mice had an increase in glycogen levels as well as increased c-kit ligand mRNA compared with wild-type controls. Consistent with a FIH-1/c-kit association, the diminished Akt signaling observed in FIH-1-overexpressing HCEKs could be restored by the addition of c-kit ligand. Interestingly, Akt signaling and glycogen content of the corneal epithelium were significantly decreased in c-kit mutant mice. CONCLUSIONS: c-Kit signaling has been shown to affect glucose metabolism via the Akt/GSK-3ß pathway. An inverse relationship between FIH-1 and c-kit signaling pathways accounts, in part, for differences in glycogen content between corneal and limbal epithelial cells.

microRNA-31/factor-inhibiting hypoxia-inducible factor 1 nexus regulates keratinocyte differentiation.

Notch plays a critical role in the transition from proliferation to differentiation in the epidermis and corneal epithelium. Furthermore, aberrant Notch signaling is a feature of diseases like psoriasis, eczema, nonmelanoma skin cancer, and melanoma where differentiation and proliferation are impaired. Whereas much is known about the downstream events following Notch signaling, factors responsible for negatively regulating Notch receptor signaling after ligand activation are incompletely understood. Notch can undergo hydroxylation by factor-inhibiting hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (FIH-1); however, the biological significance of this phenomenon is unclear. Here we show that FIH-1 expression is up-regulated in diseased epidermis and corneal epithelium. Elevating FIH-1 levels in primary human epidermal keratinocytes (HEKs) and human corneal epithelial keratinocytes (HCEKs) impairs differentiation in submerged cultures and in a "three-dimensional" organotypic raft model of human epidermis, in part, via a coordinate decrease in Notch signaling. Knockdown of FIH-1 enhances keratinocyte differentiation. Loss of FIH-1 in vivo increased Notch activity in the limbal epithelium, resulting in a more differentiated phenotype. microRNA-31 (miR-31) is an endogenous negative regulator of FIH-1 expression that results in keratinocyte differentiation, mediated by Notch activation. Ectopically expressing miR-31 in an undifferentiated corneal epithelial cell line promotes differentiation and recapitulates a corneal epithelium in a three-dimensional raft culture model. Our results define a previously unknown mechanism for keratinocyte fate decisions where Notch signaling potential is, in part, controlled through a miR-31/FIH-1 nexus.

MicroRNA-31 targets FIH-1 to positively regulate corneal epithelial glycogen metabolism.

Corneal epithelium relies on abundant glycogen stores as its primary energy source. MicroRNA-31 (miR-31), a corneal epithelial-preferred miRNA, negatively regulates factor inhibiting hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (FIH-1). Since HIF-1α is involved in anaerobic energy production, we investigated the role that miR-31 and FIH-1 play in regulating corneal epithelial glycogen. We used antagomirs (antago) to reduce the level of miR-31 in primary human corneal epithelial keratinocytes (HCEKs), and a miR-31-resistant FIH-1 to increase FIH-1 levels. Antago-31 raised FIH-1 levels and significantly reduced glycogen stores in HCEKs compared to irrelevant-antago treatment. Similarly, HCEKs retrovirally transduced with a miR-31-resistant FIH-1 had markedly reduced glycogen levels compared with empty vector controls. In addition, we observed no change in a HIF-1α reporter or known genes downstream of HIF-1α indicating that the action of FIH-1 and miR-31 on glycogen is HIF-1α-independent. An enzyme-dead FIH-1 mutation failed to restore glycogen stores, indicating that FIH-1 negatively regulates glycogen in a hydroxylase-independent manner. FIH-1 overexpression in HCEKs decreased AKT signaling, activated GSK-3ß, and inactivated glycogen synthase. Treatment of FIH-1-transduced HCEKs with either a myristolated Akt or a GSK-3ß inhibitor restored glycogen stores, confirming the direct involvement of Akt/GSK-3ß signaling. Silencing FIH-1 in HCEKs reversed the observed changes in Akt-signaling. Glycogen regulation in a HIF-1α-independent manner is a novel function for FIH-1 and provides new insight into how the corneal epithelium regulates its energy requirements.

Tumor suppressor protein C53 antagonizes checkpoint kinases to promote cyclin-dependent kinase 1 activation.

Cyclin-dependent kinase 1 (Cdk1)/cyclin B1 complex is the driving force for mitotic entry, and its activation is tightly regulated by the G2/M checkpoint. We originally reported that a novel protein C53 (also known as Cdk5rap3 and LZAP) potentiates DNA damage-induced cell death by modulating the G2/M checkpoint. More recently, Wang et al. (2007) found that C53/LZAP may function as a tumor suppressor by way of inhibiting NF-kappaB signaling. We report here the identification of C53 protein as a novel regulator of Cdk1 activation. We found that knockdown of C53 protein causes delayed Cdk1 activation and mitotic entry. During DNA damage response, activation of checkpoint kinase 1 and 2 (Chk1 and Chk2) is partially inhibited by C53 overexpression. Intriguingly, we found that C53 interacts with Chk1 and antagonizes its function. Moreover, a portion of C53 protein is localized at the centrosome, and centrosome-targeting C53 potently promotes local Cdk1 activation. Taken together, our results strongly suggest that C53 is a novel negative regulator of checkpoint response. By counteracting Chk1, C53 promotes Cdk1 activation and mitotic entry in both unperturbed cell-cycle progression and DNA damage response.

Proteasome inhibition induces both pro- and anti-cell death pathways in prostate cancer cells.

The proteasome-mediated protein degradation is critical for regulation of a variety of cellular processes, including cell cycle, cell death, differentiation and immune response. Proteasome inhibitors have recently been shown to be potent anti-cancer agents against a variety of cancer cells. Our study demonstrated that proteasome inhibitor MG132 (carbobenzoxy-L-leucyle-L-leucyl-L-leucinal) was a potent death-inducing agent for PC3 prostate cancer cells. MG132-induced cell death was partially inhibited by pan-caspase inhibitor zAVD-fmk and translational inhibitor cycloheximide. To understand the signaling pathways of proteasome inhibitor-induced cell death, we performed gene profiling study using Affymetrix human DNA microarrays to identify the genes whose expression was affected by proteasome inhibitor MG132 in PC3 cells. The genes with more than threefold increased expression induced by MG132 were functionally categorized into the following groups: heat shock and chaperone proteins, ubiquitination and protein degradation, transcription/translation factors, cell death and cell cycle arrest, signaling molecules and enzymes, and secreted cytokines. Among them, heat shock proteins and anti-oxidant enzymes may promote cell survival, while pro-death proteins such as GADD45B and STK17a may promote cell death. Interestingly, expression of a few autophagic genes was elevated by MG132 treatment. Furthermore, autophagy inhibitor 3-methyladenine partially inhibited MG132-induced cell death, indicating that autophagic cell death may contribute to MG132-induced cell death. Taken together, our results demonstrated that proteasome inhibition elicits activation of multiple signaling pathways in prostate cancer cells.