Differences between treatment-seeking and non-treatment-seeking participants in medication studies for alcoholism: do they matter?

BACKGROUND: Medication development for alcoholism typically includes experimental pharmacology studies with non-treatment-seeking individuals with alcohol use disorder (AUD) paving the way for randomized controlled trials in treatment-seekers with AUD. OBJECTIVES: The goal of this study is to provide a direct comparison between AUD treatment-seeking research participants and non-treatment-seeking participants on demographic and clinical variables and to test whether variables that differentiate the two groups are associated with clinical outcomes. METHOD: Non-treatment-seeking AUD participants (n = 213; 76.3% male) who completed behavioral pharmacology studies were compared to treatment-seekers who completed the COMBINE Study (n = 1383; 69.1% male) on demographic and clinical variables. Analyses examined whether the variables that differentiated the two groups predicted treatment outcomes in the COMBINE Study. RESULTS: Analyses revealed that treatment-seeking participants were older, had more years of education, higher Alcohol Dependence Scale scores, higher Drinker Inventory of Consequences scores, higher Obsessive Compulsive Drinking Scale scores, a greater number of DSM-IV symptoms of AUD, longer duration of AUD, and consumed more standard drinks and more drinks per drinking day (i.e., in the past 30 days) compared to non-treatment-seeking participants. Nearly all characteristics that differed between the groups predicted at least one of the primary clinical outcomes of the COMBINE Study. CONCLUSIONS: This study highlights a host of clinical and demographic factors that differ between non-treatment-seeking and treatment-seeking research participants and the clinical significance of these variables. Differences between samples should be considered and addressed in order to promote greater consilience across stages of medication development.

Review: Pharmacogenetics of alcoholism treatment: Implications of ethnic diversity.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Pharmacogenetic studies of alcohol use disorder (AUD) have suggested that the efficacy of treatments for AUD is, in part, influenced by the genetic background of an individual. Since the frequency of alleles associated with pharmacotherapy for AUD varies by ancestral background, the effectiveness of medications used to treat AUD may vary among different populations. The purpose of this review is to summarize the existing pharmacogenetic studies of treatments for AUD in individuals of European, East Asian, African, and American Indian/Alaska Native ancestry. METHODS: Electronic databases were searched for pharmacogenetic studies of AUD treatment that included individuals of diverse ancestral backgrounds. RESULTS: Pharmacogenetic studies of AUD reviewed here have primarily investigated genetic variation thought to play a role in the response to naltrexone, ondansetron, and topiramate. There is support that the A118G polymorphism should be further investigated in individuals of East Asian ancestry. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: Given the lack of pharmacogenetic research on response to AUD medication in ethnic minority populations and the mixed results, there is a critical need for future studies among individuals of different ancestries. More efforts should be devoted to standardizing procedures such that results can be more readily integrated into a body of literature that can directly inform clinical practice. SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE: This review highlights the importance for future research to aim for inclusiveness in pharmacogenetic studies of AUD and increase diversity of clinical trials in order to provide the best treatment outcomes for individuals across different racial and ethnic groups. (Am J Addict 2017;26:516-525).

Medications development for the treatment of alcohol use disorder: insights into the predictive value of animal and human laboratory models.

Development of effective treatments for alcohol use disorder (AUD) represents an important public health goal. This review provides a summary of completed preclinical and clinical studies testing pharmacotherapies for the treatment of AUD. We discuss opportunities for improving the translation from preclinical findings to clinical trial outcomes, focusing on the validity and predictive value of animal and human laboratory models of AUD. Specifically, while preclinical studies of medications development have offered important insights into the neurobiology of the disorder and alcohol's molecular targets, limitations include the lack of standardized methods and streamlined processes whereby animal studies can readily inform human studies. Behavioral pharmacology studies provide a less expensive and valuable opportunity to assess the feasibility of a pharmacotherapy prior to initiating larger scale clinical trials by providing insights into the mechanism of the drug, which can then inform recruitment, analyses, and assessments. Summary tables are provided to illustrate the wide range of preclinical, human laboratory, and clinical studies of medications development for alcoholism. Taken together, this review highlights the challenges associated with animal paradigms, human laboratory studies, and clinical trials with the overarching goal of advancing treatment development and highlighting opportunities to bridge the gap between preclinical and clinical research.

Current insights into the mechanisms and development of treatments for heavy drinking cigarette smokers.

There is a strong association between cigarette smoking and alcohol use at the epidemiological, behavioral, and molecular levels, and this co-use creates substantial impediments to smoking cessation among smokers who are also heavy drinkers. Compared with individuals who only smoke, those who both drink and smoke heavily experience more severe health consequences and have greater difficulty in quitting smoking. During smoking abstinence, greater alcohol use is associated with decreased odds of smoking cessation, and smokers are substantially more likely to experience a smoking lapse during drinking episodes. As heavy drinking smokers are less responsive to the currently available pharmacological treatments, this subgroup of high-risk substance users possesses a unique clinical profile and treatment needs. Thus, treatment development for heavy drinking smokers represents a significant and understudied research area within the field of smoking cessation. This review will briefly describe findings from epidemiological, behavioral, and molecular studies illustrating alcohol and tobacco co-use and identify how the behavioral and neurobiological mechanisms underlying the interaction of alcohol and nicotine may inform the development of targeted treatments for this unique population of smokers.

A Pilot Study of the Safety and Initial Efficacy of Ivermectin for the Treatment of Alcohol Use Disorder.

BACKGROUND: Ivermectin (IVM) is an antiparasitic agent that has been shown to reduce alcohol intake in mice, suggesting IVM as a potential treatment for alcohol use disorder (AUD). However, the safety profile of IVM administered in combination with an intoxicating dose of alcohol has not been characterized in humans. METHODS: This pilot project sought to provide the first clinical evidence that IVM could be repositioned as an AUD pharmacotherapy by examining (i) the safety of combining IVM (30 mg oral , once a day [QD]) with an intoxicating dose of intravenous alcohol (0.08 g/dl) and (ii) the effects of IVM on alcohol cue-induced craving and subjective response to alcohol. Eleven individuals with AUD participated in a randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover study in which they received the study medication, participated in a cue exposure paradigm followed by intravenous alcohol administration, and remained in an inpatient unit overnight for observation. RESULTS: IVM treatment, versus placebo, did not increase the number or severity of adverse effects during alcohol administration or throughout the visit. However, IVM did not reduce cue-induced craving nor did it significantly affect subjective response to alcohol. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that IVM (30 mg oral, QD) is safe in combination with an intoxicating dose of alcohol, but do not provide evidence that this dose of IVM is effective in reducing alcohol craving or its reinforcing effects. Given the preclinical data suggesting IVM is effective in reducing alcohol consumption in mice, additional studies testing larger samples and alternate dosing regimens are warranted to further characterize the potential efficacy of IVM as an AUD treatment.

Pharmacological Options for Smoking Cessation in Heavy-Drinking Smokers.

There is a high prevalence of comorbid tobacco use and alcohol use disorder (AUD), affecting more than 6 million people in the US. Globally, tobacco and alcohol use rank fourth and fifth, respectively, for disability-adjusted life-years lost. Levels of alcohol use are higher in smokers than nonsmokers, and the prevalence of smoking is higher in heavy drinkers compared with nondrinkers. This relationship is driven by many different factors, including genetics, neurobiological mechanisms, conditioning processes, and psychosocial influences. Although this unique population tends to experience more negative health consequences, more severe AUD, and poorer response to treatment than those with either AUD or tobacco use disorder alone, there are currently no available treatment protocols tailored to this comorbid condition. In this review, we provide a comprehensive review of ongoing clinical research into smoking cessation options for heavy-drinking smokers (HDS) through an evaluation of the effect of promising novel pharmacotherapies as well as combination therapies, including varenicline, naltrexone, the combination of varenicline and naltrexone, and the combination of naltrexone and nicotine replacement therapy (NRT). These treatments are considered in light of the standard of care for smoking cessation, and seek to improve upon the available guidelines for this sizeable subgroup of smokers, namely those smokers who drink heavily.

Oral delivery of ivermectin using a fast dissolving oral film: Implications for repurposing ivermectin as a pharmacotherapy for alcohol use disorder.

Individuals suffering from an alcohol-use disorder (AUD) constitute a major health concern. Preclinical studies in our laboratory show that acute and chronic intraperitoneal (i.p.) administration of ivermectin (IVM) reduces alcohol intake and preference in mice. To enable clinical investigation to use IVM for the treatment of an AUD, development of an oral formulation that can be used in animals as well as long-term preclinical toxicology studies are required. The present work explores the use of a promising alternative dosage form of IVM, fast-dissolving oral films (Cure Pharmaceutical®), to test the efficacy and safety of oral IVM in conjunction with alcohol exposure. We tested the effect of IVM (0.21 mg) using a fast-dissolving oral film delivery method on reducing 10% v/v alcohol (10E) intake in female C57BL/6 mice using a 24-h access two-bottle choice paradigm for 6 weeks (5 days per week). Differences in ethanol intake, preference for ethanol, water intake, fluid intake, food intake, changes in mouse and organ weights, as well as histological changes to kidney, liver, and brain were analyzed. The IVM group drank significantly less ethanol over the 30-day period compared to the placebo (blank strip) and the no-treatment groups. Organ weights did not differ between the groups. Histological evaluation showed no differences in the brain and kidney between groups. In the liver, there was a slight increase in the incidence of microvesicular fatty and degenerative changes of the animals receiving the thin strips. No overt hepatocellular necrosis or perivascular inflammation was noted. Overall, these data support the use of this novel method of oral drug delivery for longer-term studies and should facilitate FDA required preclinical testing that is necessary to repurpose IVM for treatment of an AUD.

Multiday administration of ivermectin is effective in reducing alcohol intake in mice at doses shown to be safe in humans.

Ivermectin (IVM), an FDA approved anthelmintic agent, can significantly reduce ethanol intake in mice following acute administration. The current study evaluates the sustainability and safety of multiday IVM administration in reducing 10% v/v ethyl alcohol (10E) intake in mice at a dose shown to be safe in humans. We tested the effect of 10-day administration of IVM (3.0 mg/kg/day; intraperitoneally) on reducing 10E intake in C57BL/6J mice using a 24-h, two-bottle choice paradigm. On the 10th day of IVM administration, mice were sacrificed at 0, 0.5, 2, 8, 32, 48, and 72 h after injection. Brain tissue and plasma samples were collected and analyzed using liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to assess the effect of 10-day IVM administration on 10E intake, 10E preference, water intake, and total fluid intake with Dunnett's multiple comparison post-hoc test. Individual Student's t-tests were also used to further quantify changes in these dependent variables. IVM significantly decreased 10E intake over a 9-day period (P<0.01). Pre-IVM 10E intake was 9.1±3.2 g/kg/24 h. Following the 9th day of IVM injections, intake dropped by almost 30% (P<0.05). IVM had no effect on total water intake or mouse weight throughout the study; however, there was a significant decrease in both preference for 10E (P<0.01) and total fluid intake (P<0.05). Multiday administration of IVM significantly reduces 10E intake and preference in animals without causing any apparent adverse effects at a dose shown to be safe in humans.

Contribution of P2X4 receptors to ethanol intake in male C57BL/6 mice.

P2X receptors (P2XRs) are a family of cation-permeable ligand-gated ion channels activated by synaptically released extracellular adenosine 5'-triphosphate. The P2X4 subtype is abundantly expressed in the central nervous system and is sensitive to low intoxicating ethanol concentrations. Genetic meta-analyses identified the p2rx4 gene as a candidate gene for innate alcohol intake and/or preference. The current study used mice lacking the p2rx4 gene (knockout, KO) and wildtype (WT) C57BL/6 controls to test the hypothesis that P2X4Rs contribute to ethanol intake. The early acquisition and early maintenance phases of ethanol intake were measured with three different drinking procedures. Further, we tested the effects of ivermectin (IVM), a drug previously shown to reduce ethanol's effects on P2X4Rs and to reduce ethanol intake and preference, for its ability to differentially alter stable ethanol intake in KO and WT mice. Depending on the procedure and the concentration of the ethanol solution, ethanol intake was transiently increased in P2X4R KO versus WT mice during the acquisition of 24-h and limited access ethanol intake. IVM significantly reduced ethanol intake in P2X4R KO and WT mice, but the degree of reduction was 50 % less in the P2X4R KO mice. Western blot analysis identified significant changes in γ-aminobutyric acidA receptor α1 subunit expression in brain regions associated with the regulation of ethanol behaviors in P2X4R KO mice. These findings add to evidence that P2X4Rs contribute to ethanol intake and indicate that there is a complex interaction between P2X4Rs, ethanol, and other neurotransmitter receptor systems.

Avermectins differentially affect ethanol intake and receptor function: implications for developing new therapeutics for alcohol use disorders.

Our laboratory is investigating ivermectin (IVM) and other members of the avermectin family as new pharmaco-therapeutics to prevent and/or treat alcohol use disorders (AUDs). Earlier work found that IVM significantly reduced ethanol intake in mice and that this effect likely reflects IVM's ability to modulate ligand-gated ion channels. We hypothesized that structural modifications that enhance IVM's effects on key receptors and/or increase its brain concentration should improve its anti-alcohol efficacy. We tested this hypothesis by comparing the abilities of IVM and two other avermectins, abamectin (ABM) and selamectin (SEL), to reduce ethanol intake in mice, to alter modulation of GABAARs and P2X4Rs expressed in Xenopus oocytes and to increase their ability to penetrate the brain. IVM and ABM significantly reduced ethanol intake and antagonized the inhibitory effects of ethanol on P2X4R function. In contrast, SEL did not affect either measure, despite achieving higher brain concentrations than IVM and ABM. All three potentiated GABAAR function. These findings suggest that chemical structure and effects on receptor function play key roles in the ability of avermectins to reduce ethanol intake and that these factors are more important than brain penetration alone. The direct relationship between the effect of these avermectins on P2X4R function and ethanol intake suggest that the ability to antagonize ethanol-mediated inhibition of P2X4R function may be a good predictor of the potential of an avermectin to reduce ethanol intake and support the use of avermectins as a platform for developing novel drugs to prevent and/or treat AUDs.

Pharmacological insights into the role of P2X4 receptors in behavioural regulation: lessons from ivermectin.

Purinergic ionotropic P2X receptors are a family of cation-permeable channels that bind extracellular adenosine 5'-triphosphate. In particular, convergent lines of evidence have recently highlighted P2X(4) receptors as a potentially critical target in the regulation of multiple nervous and behavioural functions, including pain, neuroendocrine regulation and hippocampal plasticity. Nevertheless, the role of the P2X(4) receptor in behavioural organization remains poorly investigated. To study the effects of P2X(4) activation, we tested the acute effects of its potent positive allosteric modulator ivermectin (IVM, 2.5-10 mg/kg i.p.) on a broad set of paradigms capturing complementary aspects of perceptual, emotional and cognitive regulation in mice. In a novel open field, IVM did not induce significant changes in locomotor activity, but increased the time spent in the peripheral zone. In contrast, IVM produced anxiolytic-like effects in the elevated plus maze and marble burying tasks, as well as depression-like behaviours in the tail-suspension and forced swim tests. The agent induced no significant behavioural changes in the conditioned place preference test and in the novel object recognition task. Finally, the drug induced a dose-dependent decrease in sensorimotor gating, as assessed by pre-pulse inhibition (PPI) of the acoustic startle reflex. In P2X(4) knockout mice, the effects of IVM in the open field and elevated plus maze were similar to those observed in wild type mice; conversely, the drug significantly increased startle amplitude and failed to reduce PPI. Taken together, these results suggest that P2X(4) receptors may play a role in the regulation of sensorimotor gating.

Ivermectin reduces alcohol intake and preference in mice.

The high rate of therapeutic failure in the management of alcohol use disorders (AUDs) underscores the urgent need for novel and effective strategies that can deter ethanol consumption. Recent findings from our group showed that ivermectin (IVM), a broad-spectrum anthelmintic with high tolerability and optimal safety profile in humans and animals, antagonized ethanol-mediated inhibition of P2X4 receptors (P2X4Rs) expressed in Xenopus oocytes. This finding prompted us to hypothesize that IVM may reduce alcohol consumption; thus, in the present study we investigated the effects of this agent on several models of alcohol self-administration in male and female C57BL/6 mice. Overall, IVM (1.25-10 mg/kg, intraperitoneal) significantly reduced 24-h alcohol consumption and intermittent limited access (4-h) binge drinking, and operant alcohol self-administration (1-h). The effects on alcohol intake were dose-dependent with the significant reduction in intake at 9 h after administration corresponding to peak IVM concentrations (C(max)) in the brain. IVM also produced a significant reduction in 24-h saccharin consumption, but did not alter operant sucrose self-administration. Taken together, the findings indicate that IVM reduces alcohol intake across several different models of self-administration and suggest that IVM may be useful in the treatment of AUDs.