Structural dynamics and transient lipid binding of synaptobrevin-2 tune SNARE assembly and membrane fusion.

Intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) and their conformational transitions play an important role in neurotransmitter release at the neuronal synapse. Here, the SNARE proteins are essential by forming the SNARE complex that drives vesicular membrane fusion. While it is widely accepted that the SNARE proteins are intrinsically disordered in their monomeric prefusion form, important mechanistic aspects of this prefusion conformation and its lipid interactions, before forming the SNARE complex, are not fully understood at the molecular level and remain controversial. Here, by a combination of NMR and fluorescence spectroscopy methods, we find that vesicular synaptobrevin-2 (syb-2) in its monomeric prefusion conformation shows high flexibility, characteristic for an IDP, but also a high dynamic range and increasing rigidity from the N to C terminus. The gradual increase in rigidity correlates with an increase in lipid binding affinity from the N to C terminus. It could also explain the increased rate for C-terminal SNARE zippering, known to be faster than N-terminal SNARE zippering. Also, the syb-2 SNARE motif and, in particular, the linker domain show transient and weak membrane binding, characterized by a high off-rate and low (millimolar) affinity. The transient membrane binding of syb-2 may compensate for the repulsive forces between the two membranes and/or the SNARE motifs and the membranes, helping to destabilize the hydrophilic-hydrophobic boundary in the bilayer. Therefore, we propose that optimum flexibility and membrane binding of syb-2 regulate SNARE assembly and minimize repulsive forces during membrane fusion.

Vesicle Adhesion and Fusion Studied by Small-Angle X-Ray Scattering.

We have studied the adhesion state (also denoted by docking state) of lipid vesicles as induced by the divalent ions Ca2+ or Mg2+ at well-controlled ion concentration, lipid composition, and charge density. The bilayer structure and the interbilayer distance in the docking state were analyzed by small-angle x-ray scattering. A strong adhesion state was observed for DOPC:DOPS vesicles, indicating like-charge attraction resulting from ion correlations. The observed interbilayer separations of ∼1.6 nm agree quantitatively with the predictions of electrostatics in the strong coupling regime. Although this phenomenon was observed when mixing anionic and zwitterionic (or neutral) lipids, pure anionic membranes (DOPS) with highest charge density σ resulted in a direct phase transition to a multilamellar state, which must be accompanied by rupture and fusion of vesicles. To extend the structural assay toward protein-controlled docking and fusion, we have characterized reconstituted N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptors in controlled proteoliposome suspensions by small-angle x-ray scattering.

Arrest of trans-SNARE zippering uncovers loosely and tightly docked intermediates in membrane fusion.

Soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor (SNARE) proteins mediate intracellular membrane fusion in the secretory pathway. They contain conserved regions, termed SNARE motifs, that assemble between opposing membranes directionally from their N termini to their membrane-proximal C termini in a highly exergonic reaction. However, how this energy is utilized to overcome the energy barriers along the fusion pathway is still under debate. Here, we have used mutants of the SNARE synaptobrevin to arrest trans-SNARE zippering at defined stages. We have uncovered two distinct vesicle docking intermediates where the membranes are loosely and tightly connected, respectively. The tightly connected state is irreversible and independent of maintaining assembled SNARE complexes. Together, our results shed new light on the intermediate stages along the pathway of membrane fusion.

Direct targeting of membrane fusion by SNARE mimicry: Convergent evolution of Legionella effectors.

Legionella pneumophila, the Gram-negative pathogen causing Legionnaires' disease, infects host cells by hijacking endocytic pathways and forming a Legionella-containing vacuole (LCV) in which the bacteria replicate. To promote LCV expansion and prevent lysosomal targeting, effector proteins are translocated into the host cell where they alter membrane traffic. Here we show that three of these effectors [LegC2 (Legionella eukaryotic-like gene C2)/YlfB (yeast lethal factor B), LegC3, and LegC7/YlfA] functionally mimic glutamine (Q)-SNARE proteins. In infected cells, the three proteins selectively form complexes with the endosomal arginine (R)-SNARE vesicle-associated membrane protein 4 (VAMP4). When reconstituted in proteoliposomes, these proteins avidly fuse with liposomes containing VAMP4, resulting in a stable complex with properties resembling canonical SNARE complexes. Intriguingly, however, the LegC/SNARE hybrid complex cannot be disassembled by N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor. We conclude that LegCs use SNARE mimicry to divert VAMP4-containing vesicles for fusion with the LCV, thus promoting its expansion. In addition, the LegC/VAMP4 complex avoids the host's disassembly machinery, thus effectively trapping VAMP4 in an inactive state.

Synaptotagmin-1 binds to PIP(2)-containing membrane but not to SNAREs at physiological ionic strength.

The Ca(2+) sensor synaptotagmin-1 is thought to trigger membrane fusion by binding to acidic membrane lipids and SNARE proteins. Previous work has shown that binding is mediated by electrostatic interactions that are sensitive to the ionic environment. However, the influence of divalent or polyvalent ions, at physiological concentrations, on synaptotagmin's binding to membranes or SNAREs has not been explored. Here we show that binding of rat synaptotagmin-1 to membranes containing phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) is regulated by charge shielding caused by the presence of divalent cations. Surprisingly, polyvalent ions such as ATP and Mg(2+) completely abrogate synaptotagmin-1 binding to SNAREs regardless of the presence of Ca(2+). Altogether, our data indicate that at physiological ion concentrations Ca(2+)-dependent synaptotagmin-1 binding is confined to PIP2-containing membrane patches in the plasma membrane, suggesting that membrane interaction of synaptotagmin-1 rather than SNARE binding triggers exocytosis of vesicles.

A digital atlas of ion channel expression patterns in the two-week-old rat brain.

The approximately 350 ion channels encoded by the mammalian genome are a main pillar of the nervous system. We have determined the expression pattern of 320 channels in the two-week-old (P14) rat brain by means of non-radioactive robotic in situ hybridization. Optimized methods were developed and implemented to generate stringently coronal brain sections. The use of standardized methods permits a direct comparison of expression patterns across the entire ion channel expression pattern data set and facilitates recognizing ion channel co-expression. All expression data are made publically available at the Genepaint.org database. Inwardly rectifying potassium channels (Kir, encoded by the Kcnj genes) regulate a broad spectrum of physiological processes. Kcnj channel expression patterns generated in the present study were fitted with a deformable subdivision mesh atlas produced for the P14 rat brain. This co-registration, when combined with numerical quantification of expression strengths, allowed for semi-quantitative automated annotation of expression patterns as well as comparisons among and between Kcnj subfamilies. The expression patterns of Kcnj channel were also cross validated against previously published expression patterns of Kcnj channel genes.

α-SNAP interferes with the zippering of the SNARE protein membrane fusion machinery.

Neuronal exocytosis is mediated by soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor (SNARE) proteins. Before fusion, SNARE proteins form complexes bridging the membrane followed by assembly toward the C-terminal membrane anchors, thus initiating membrane fusion. After fusion, the SNARE complex is disassembled by the AAA-ATPase N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor that requires the cofactor α-SNAP to first bind to the assembled SNARE complex. Using chromaffin granules and liposomes we now show that α-SNAP on its own interferes with the zippering of membrane-anchored SNARE complexes midway through the zippering reaction, arresting SNAREs in a partially assembled trans-complex and preventing fusion. Intriguingly, the interference does not result in an inhibitory effect on synaptic vesicles, suggesting that membrane properties also influence the final outcome of α-SNAP interference with SNARE zippering. We suggest that binding of α-SNAP to the SNARE complex affects the ability of the SNARE complex to harness energy or transmit force to the membrane.