Parkinson's Disease Gene Screening in Familial Cases from Central and South America.

BACKGROUND: Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease following Alzheimer's disease. Nearly 30 causative genes have been identified for PD and related disorders. However, most of these genes were identified in European-derived families, and little is known about their role in Latin American populations. OBJECTIVES: Our goal was to assess the spectrum and frequency of pathogenic variants in known PD genes in familial PD patients from Latin America. METHODS: We selected 335 PD patients with a family history of PD from the Latin American Research Consortium on the Genetics of PD. We capture-sequenced the coding regions of 26 genes related to neurodegenerative parkinsonism. Of the 335 PD patients, 324 had sufficient sequencing coverage to be analyzed. RESULTS: We identified pathogenic variants in 41 individuals (12.7%) in FBXO7, GCH1, LRRK2, PARK7, PINK1, PLA2G6, PRKN, SNCA, and TARDBP, GBA1 risk variants in 25 individuals (7.7%), and variants of uncertain significance in another 24 individuals (7.4%) in ATP13A2, ATP1A3, DNAJC13, DNAJC6, GBA1, LRKK2, PINK1, VPS13C, and VPS35. Of the 70 unique variants identified, 19 were more frequent in Latin Americans than in any other population. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first screening of known PD genes in a large cohort of patients with familial PD from Latin America. There were substantial differences in the spectrum of variants observed in comparison to previous findings from PD families of European origin. Our data provide further evidence that differences exist between the genetic architecture of PD in Latinos and European-derived populations. © 2024 The Author(s). Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

X-Chromosome Association Study in Latin American Cohorts Identifies New Loci in Parkinson's Disease.

BACKGROUND: Sex differences in Parkinson's disease (PD) risk are well-known. However, the role of sex chromosomes in the development and progression of PD is still unclear. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to perform the first X-chromosome-wide association study for PD risk in a Latin American cohort. METHODS: We used data from three admixed cohorts: (1) Latin American Research consortium on the Genetics of Parkinson's Disease (n = 1504) as discover cohort, and (2) Latino cohort from International Parkinson Disease Genomics Consortium (n = 155) and (3) Bambui Aging cohort (n = 1442) as replication cohorts. We also developed an X-chromosome framework specifically designed for admixed populations. RESULTS: We identified eight linkage disequilibrium regions associated with PD. We replicated one of these regions (top variant rs525496; discovery odds ratio [95% confidence interval]: 0.60 [0.478-0.77], P = 3.13 × 10-5 replication odds ratio: 0.60 [0.37-0.98], P = 0.04). rs5525496 is associated with multiple expression quantitative trait loci in brain and non-brain tissues, including RAB9B, H2BFM, TSMB15B, and GLRA4, but colocalization analysis suggests that rs5525496 may not mediate risk by expression of these genes. We also replicated a previous X-chromosome-wide association study finding (rs28602900), showing that this variant is associated with PD in non-European populations. CONCLUSIONS: Our results reinforce the importance of including X-chromosome and diverse populations in genetic studies. © 2023 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

X-Chromosome Association Study in Latin American Cohorts Identifies New Loci in Parkinson Disease.

Sex differences in Parkinson Disease (PD) risk are well-known. However, it is still unclear the role of sex chromosomes in the development and progression of PD. We performed the first X-chromosome Wide Association Study (XWAS) for PD risk in Latin American individuals. We used data from three admixed cohorts: (i) Latin American Research consortium on the GEnetics of Parkinson's Disease (n=1,504) as discover cohort and (ii) Latino cohort from International Parkinson Disease Genomics Consortium (n = 155) and (iii) Bambui Aging cohort (n= 1,442) as replication cohorts. After developing a X-chromosome framework specifically designed for admixed populations, we identified eight linkage disequilibrium regions associated with PD. We fully replicated one of these regions (top variant rs525496; discovery OR [95%CI]: 0.60 [0.478 - 0.77], p = 3.13 × 10 -5 ; replication OR: 0.60 [0.37-0.98], p = 0.04). rs525496 is an expression quantitative trait loci for several genes expressed in brain tissues, including RAB9B, H2BFM, TSMB15B and GLRA4 . We also replicated a previous XWAS finding (rs28602900), showing that this variant is associated with PD in non-European populations. Our results reinforce the importance of including X-chromosome and diverse populations in genetic studies.

Homozygous CADPS2 Mutations Cause Neurodegenerative Disease with Lewy Body-like Pathology in Parrots.

BACKGROUND: Several genetic models that recapitulate neurodegenerative features of Parkinson's disease (PD) exist, which have been largely based on genes discovered in monogenic PD families. However, spontaneous genetic mutations have not been linked to the pathological hallmarks of PD in non-human vertebrates. OBJECTIVE: To describe the genetic and pathological findings of three Yellow-crowned parrot (Amazona ochrocepahala) siblings with a severe and rapidly progressive neurological phenotype. METHODS: The phenotype of the three parrots included severe ataxia, rigidity, and tremor, while their parents were phenotypically normal. Tests to identify avian viral infections and brain imaging studies were all negative. Due to their severe impairment, they were all euthanized at age 3 months and their brains underwent neuropathological examination and proteasome activity assays. Whole genome sequencing (WGS) was performed on the three affected parrots and their parents. RESULTS: The brains of affected parrots exhibited neuronal loss, spongiosis, and widespread Lewy body-like inclusions in many regions including the midbrain, basal ganglia, and neocortex. Proteasome activity was significantly reduced in these animals compared to a control (P < 0.05). WGS identified a single homozygous missense mutation (p.V559L) in a highly conserved amino acid within the pleckstrin homology (PH) domain of the calcium-dependent secretion activator 2 (CADPS2) gene. CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that a homozygous mutation in the CADPS2 gene causes a severe neurodegenerative phenotype with Lewy body-like pathology in parrots. Although CADPS2 variants have not been reported to cause PD, further investigation of the gene might provide important insights into the pathophysiology of Lewy body disorders. © 2022 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society. This article has been contributed to by U.S. Government employees and their work is in the public domain in the USA.

Polygenic risk prediction and SNCA haplotype analysis in a Latino Parkinson's disease cohort.

BACKGROUND: Large-scale Parkinson's disease (PD) genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have, until recently, only been conducted on subjects with European-ancestry. Consequently, polygenic risk scores (PRS) constructed using PD GWAS data are likely to be less predictive when applied to non-European cohorts. METHODS: Using GWAS data from the largest study to date, we constructed a PD PRS for a Latino PD cohort (1497 subjects from LARGE-PD) and tested it for association with PD status and age at onset. We validated the PRS performance by testing it in an independent Latino cohort (448 subjects) and by repeating the analysis in LARGE-PD with the addition of 440 external Peruvian controls. We also tested SNCA haplotypes for association with PD risk in LARGE-PD and a European-ancestry PD cohort. RESULTS: The GWAS-significant PD PRS had an area under the receiver-operator curve (AUC) of 0.668 (95% CI: 0.640-0.695) in LARGE-PD. The inclusion of external Peruvian controls mitigated this result, dropping the AUC 0.632 (95% CI: 0.607-0.657). At the SNCA locus, haplotypes differ by ancestry. Ancestry-specific SNCA haplotypes were associated with PD status in both LARGE-PD and the European-ancestry cohort (p-value < 0.05). These haplotypes both include the rs356182 G-allele, but only share 14% of their variants overall. CONCLUSION: The PD PRS has potential for PD risk prediction in Latinos, but variability caused by admixture patterns and bias in a European-ancestry PD PRS data limits its utility. The inclusion of diverse subjects can help elucidate PD risk loci and improve risk prediction in non-European cohorts.

Characterizing the Genetic Architecture of Parkinson's Disease in Latinos.

OBJECTIVE: This work was undertaken in order to identify Parkinson's disease (PD) risk variants in a Latino cohort, to describe the overlap in the genetic architecture of PD in Latinos compared to European-ancestry subjects, and to increase the diversity in PD genome-wide association (GWAS) data. METHODS: We genotyped and imputed 1,497 PD cases and controls recruited from nine clinical sites across South America. We performed a GWAS using logistic mixed models; variants with a p-value <1 × 10-5 were tested in a replication cohort of 1,234 self-reported Latino PD cases and 439,522 Latino controls from 23andMe, Inc. We also performed an admixture mapping analysis where local ancestry blocks were tested for association with PD status. RESULTS: One locus, SNCA, achieved genome-wide significance (p-value <5 × 10-8 ); rs356182 achieved genome-wide significance in both the discovery and the replication cohorts (discovery, G allele: 1.58 OR, 95% CI 1.35-1.86, p-value 2.48 × 10-8 ; 23andMe, G allele: 1.26 OR, 95% CI 1.16-1.37, p-value 4.55 × 10-8 ). In our admixture mapping analysis, a locus on chromosome 14, containing the gene STXBP6, achieved significance in a joint test of ancestries and in the Native American single-ancestry test (p-value <5 × 10-5 ). A second locus on chromosome 6, containing the gene RPS6KA2, achieved significance in the African single-ancestry test (p-value <5 × 10-5 ). INTERPRETATION: This study demonstrated the importance of the SNCA locus for the etiology of PD in Latinos. By leveraging the demographic history of our cohort via admixture mapping, we identified two potential PD risk loci that merit further study. ANN NEUROL 2021;90:353-365.

Genome-Wide Analysis of Copy Number Variation in Latin American Parkinson's Disease Patients.

BACKGROUND: Parkinson's disease is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder and affects people from all ethnic backgrounds, yet little is known about the genetics of Parkinson's disease in non-European populations. In addition, the overall identification of copy number variants at a genome-wide level has been understudied in Parkinson's patients. The objective of this study was to understand the genome-wide burden of copy number variants in Latinos and its association with Parkinson's disease. METHODS: We used genome-wide genotyping data from 747 Parkinson's disease patients and 632 controls from the Latin American Research Consortium on the Genetics of Parkinson's disease. RESULTS: Genome-wide copy number burden analysis showed that patients were significantly enriched for copy number variants overlapping known Parkinson's disease genes compared with controls (odds ratio, 3.97; 95%CI, 1.69-10.5; P = 0.018). PRKN showed the strongest copy number burden, with 20 copy number variant carriers. These patients presented an earlier age of disease onset compared with patients with other copy number variants (median age at onset, 31 vs 57 years, respectively; P = 7.46 × 10-7 ). CONCLUSIONS: We found that although overall genome-wide copy number variant burden was not significantly different, Parkinson's disease patients were significantly enriched with copy number variants affecting known Parkinson's disease genes. We also identified that of 250 patients with early-onset disease, 5.6% carried a copy number variant on PRKN in our cohort. Our study is the first to analyze genome-wide copy number variant association in Latino Parkinson's disease patients and provides insights about this complex disease in this understudied population. © 2020 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Novel compound heterozygous FBXO7 mutations in a family with early onset Parkinson's disease.

BACKGROUND: Mutations in the F-box protein 7 (FBXO7) gene result in autosomal recessive parkinsonism. This usually manifests as early-onset parkinsonian-pyramidal syndrome but patients exhibit high phenotypic variability. Here we describe the findings of a Yemeni family with two novel FBXO7 mutations. METHODS: Clinical data and DNA were available for three siblings with early-onset parkinsonism together with their parents and three unaffected siblings. A targeted next generation sequencing panel was used to screen the proband for mutations in 14 genes known to cause a parkinsonian disorder. In addition, SNCA, PARK2, PINK1, and PARK7 were screened for copy number variants. RESULTS: The proband carried two novel compound heterozygous FBXO7 mutations: a missense mutation in exon 1 (p.G39R; c.115G > A) and a frameshift mutation in exon 5 (p.L280fs; c.838del). The mutations segregated with disease in the family with the exception of a potentially pre-symptomatic individual whose age was below the age of onset in two of their three affected siblings. P.G39R occurred at a highly conserved amino acid residue and both mutations were predicted to be deleterious in silico. In contrast to most reported families, the phenotype in this pedigree was consistent with clinically typical Parkinson's disease (PD) with a lack of pyramidal signs and good response to dopaminergic therapy. CONCLUSIONS: Our study expands the phenotype associated with FBXO7 to include early-onset PD and broadens the list of causative mutations. These data suggest that FBXO7 should be included in clinical genetic testing panels for PD, particularly in patients with early onset or a recessive inheritance pattern.

The distribution and risk effect of GBA variants in a large cohort of PD patients from Colombia and Peru.

BACKGROUND: Mutations in the glucocerebrosidase (GBA) gene are an important risk factor for Parkinson's disease (PD). However, most GBA genetic studies in PD have been performed in patients of European origin and very few data are available in other populations. METHODS: We sequenced the entire GBA coding region in 602 PD patients and 319 controls from Colombia and Peru enrolled as part of the Latin American Research Consortium on the Genetics of Parkinson's disease (LARGE-PD). RESULTS: We observed a significantly higher proportion of GBA mutation carriers in patients compared to healthy controls (5.5% vs 1.6%; OR = 4.3, p = 0.004). Interestingly, the frequency of mutations in Colombian patients (9.9%) was more than two-fold greater than in Peruvian patients (4.2%) and other European-derived populations reported in the literature (4-5%). This was primarily due to the presence of a population-specific mutation (p.K198E) found only in the Colombian cohort. We also observed that the age at onset was significantly earlier in GBA carriers when compared to non-carriers (47.1 ±â€¯14.2 y vs. 55.9 ±â€¯14.2 y; p = 0.0004). CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that GBA mutations are strongly associated with PD risk and earlier age at onset in Peru and Colombia. The high frequency of GBA carriers among Colombian PD patients (∼10%) makes this population especially well-suited for novel therapeutic approaches that target GBA-related PD.

Erratum: Variable frequency of LRRK2 variants in the Latin American research consortium on the genetics of Parkinson's disease (LARGE-PD), a case of ancestry.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1038/s41531-017-0020-6.].

Variable frequency of LRRK2 variants in the Latin American research consortium on the genetics of Parkinson's disease (LARGE-PD), a case of ancestry.

Mutations in Leucine-Rich Repeat Kinase 2 (LRRK2), primarily located in codons G2019 and R1441, represent the most common genetic cause of Parkinson's disease in European-derived populations. However, little is known about the frequency of these mutations in Latin American populations. In addition, a prior study suggested that a LRRK2 polymorphism (p.Q1111H) specific to Latino and Amerindian populations might be a risk factor for Parkinson's disease, but this finding requires replication. We screened 1734 Parkinson's disease patients and 1097 controls enrolled in the Latin American Research Consortium on the Genetics of Parkinson's disease (LARGE-PD), which includes sites in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Uruguay. Genotypes were determined by TaqMan assay (p.G2019S and p.Q1111H) or by sequencing of exon 31 (p.R1441C/G/H/S). Admixture proportion was determined using a panel of 29 ancestry informative markers. We identified a total of 29 Parkinson's disease patients (1.7%) who carried p.G2019S and the frequency ranged from 0.2% in Peru to 4.2% in Uruguay. Only two Parkinson's disease patients carried p.R1441G and one patient carried p.R1441C. There was no significant difference in the frequency of p.Q1111H in patients (3.8%) compared to controls (3.1%; OR 1.02, p = 0.873). The frequency of LRRK2-p.G2019S varied greatly between different Latin American countries and was directly correlated with the amount of European ancestry observed. p.R1441G is rare in Latin America despite the large genetic contribution made by settlers from Spain, where the mutation is relatively common.

Large-scale exploratory genetic analysis of cognitive impairment in Parkinson's disease.

Cognitive impairment is a common and disabling problem in Parkinson's disease (PD). Identification of genetic variants that influence the presence or severity of cognitive deficits in PD might provide a clearer understanding of the pathophysiology underlying this important nonmotor feature. We genotyped 1105 PD patients from the PD Cognitive Genetics Consortium for 249,336 variants using the NeuroX array. Participants underwent assessments of learning and memory (Hopkins Verbal Learning Test-Revised [HVLT-R]), working memory/executive function (Letter-Number Sequencing and Trail Making Test [TMT] A and B), language processing (semantic and phonemic verbal fluency), visuospatial abilities (Benton Judgment of Line Orientation [JoLO]), and global cognitive function (Montreal Cognitive Assessment). For common variants, we used linear regression to test for association between genotype and cognitive performance with adjustment for important covariates. Rare variants were analyzed using the optimal unified sequence kernel association test. The significance threshold was defined as a false discovery rate-corrected p-value (PFDR) of 0.05. Eighteen common variants in 13 genomic regions exceeded the significance threshold for one of the cognitive tests. These included GBA rs2230288 (E326K; PFDR = 2.7 × 10-4) for JoLO, PARP4 rs9318600 (PFDR = 0.006), and rs9581094 (PFDR = 0.006) for HVLT-R total recall, and MTCL1 rs34877994 (PFDR = 0.01) for TMT B-A. Analysis of rare variants did not yield any significant gene regions. We have conducted the first large-scale PD cognitive genetics analysis and nominated several new putative susceptibility genes for cognitive impairment in PD. These results will require replication in independent PD cohorts.

Neuropathological and genetic correlates of survival and dementia onset in synucleinopathies: a retrospective analysis.

BACKGROUND: Great heterogeneity exists in survival and the interval between onset of motor symptoms and dementia symptoms across synucleinopathies. We aimed to identify genetic and pathological markers that have the strongest association with these features of clinical heterogeneity in synucleinopathies. METHODS: In this retrospective study, we examined symptom onset, and genetic and neuropathological data from a cohort of patients with Lewy body disorders with autopsy-confirmed α synucleinopathy (as of Oct 1, 2015) who were previously included in other studies from five academic institutions in five cities in the USA. We used histopathology techniques and markers to assess the burden of tau neurofibrillary tangles, neuritic plaques, α-synuclein inclusions, and other pathological changes in cortical regions. These samples were graded on an ordinal scale and genotyped for variants associated with synucleinopathies. We assessed the interval from onset of motor symptoms to onset of dementia, and overall survival in groups with varying levels of comorbid Alzheimer's disease pathology according to US National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer's Association neuropathological criteria, and used multivariate regression to control for age at death and sex. FINDINGS: On the basis of data from 213 patients who had been followed up to autopsy and met inclusion criteria of Lewy body disorder with autopsy-confirmed α synucleinopathy, we identified 49 (23%) patients with no Alzheimer's disease neuropathology, 56 (26%) with low-level Alzheimer's disease neuropathology, 45 (21%) with intermediate-level Alzheimer's disease neuropathology, and 63 (30%) with high-level Alzheimer's disease neuropathology. As levels of Alzheimer's disease neuropathology increased, cerebral α-synuclein scores were higher, and the interval between onset of motor and dementia symptoms and disease duration was shorter (p<0·0001 for all comparisons). Multivariate regression showed independent negative associations of cerebral tau neurofibrillary tangles score with the interval between onset of motor and dementia symptoms (ß -4·0, 95% CI -5·5 to -2·6; p<0·0001; R2 0·22, p<0·0001) and with survival (-2·0, -3·2 to -0·8; 0·003; 0·15, <0·0001) in models that included age at death, sex, cerebral neuritic plaque scores, cerebral α-synuclein scores, presence of cerebrovascular disease, MAPT haplotype, and APOE genotype as covariates. INTERPRETATION: Alzheimer's disease neuropathology is common in synucleinopathies and confers a worse prognosis for each increasing level of neuropathological change. Cerebral neurofibrillary tangles burden, in addition to α-synuclein pathology and amyloid plaque pathology, are the strongest pathological predictors of a shorter interval between onset of motor and dementia symptoms and survival. Diagnostic criteria based on reliable biomarkers for Alzheimer's disease neuropathology in synucleinopathies should help to identify the most appropriate patients for clinical trials of emerging therapies targeting tau, amyloid-ß or α synuclein, and to stratify them by level of Alzheimer's disease neuropathology. FUNDING: US National Institutes of Health (National Institute on Aging and National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke).

Association of GBA Mutations and the E326K Polymorphism With Motor and Cognitive Progression in Parkinson Disease.

IMPORTANCE: Parkinson disease (PD) is heterogeneous in symptom manifestation and rate of progression. Identifying factors that influence disease progression could provide mechanistic insight, improve prognostic accuracy, and elucidate novel therapeutic targets. OBJECTIVE: To determine whether GBA mutations and the E326K polymorphism modify PD symptom progression. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: The entire GBA coding region was screened for mutations and E326K in 740 patients with PD enrolled at 7 sites from the PD Cognitive Genetics Consortium. Detailed longitudinal motor and cognitive assessments were performed with patients in the on state. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: Linear regression was used to test for an association between GBA genotype and motor progression, with the Movement Disorder Society-sponsored version of the Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale Part III (MDS-UPDRS III) score at the last assessment as the outcome and GBA genotype as the independent variable, with adjustment for levodopa equivalent dose, sex, age, disease duration, MDS-UPDRS III score at the first assessment, duration of follow-up, and site. Similar methods were used to examine the association between genotype and tremor and postural instability and gait difficulty (PIGD) scores. To examine the effect of GBA genotype on cognitive progression, patients were classified into those with conversion to mild cognitive impairment or dementia during the study (progression) and those without progression. The association between GBA genotype and progression status was then tested using logistic regression, adjusting for sex, age, disease duration, duration of follow-up, years of education, and site. RESULTS: Of the total sample of 733 patients who underwent successful genotyping, 226 (30.8%) were women and 507 (69.2%) were men (mean [SD] age, 68.1 [8.8] years). The mean (SD) duration of follow-up was 3.0 (1.7) years. GBA mutations (ß = 4.65; 95% CI, 1.72-7.58; P = .002), E326K (ß = 3.42; 95% CI, 0.66-6.17; P = .02), and GBA variants combined as a single group (ß = 4.01; 95% CI, 1.95-6.07; P = 1.5 × 10-4) were associated with a more rapid decline in MDS-UPDRS III score. Combined GBA variants (ß = 0.38; 95% CI, 0.23-0.53; P = .01) and E326K (ß = 0.64; 95% CI, 0.43-0.86; P = .002) were associated with faster progression in PIGD scores, but not in tremor scores. A significantly higher proportion of E326K carriers (10 of 21 [47.6%]; P = .01) and GBA variant carriers (15 of 39 [38.5%]; P = .04) progressed to mild cognitive impairment or dementia. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: GBA variants predict a more rapid progression of cognitive dysfunction and motor symptoms in patients with PD, with a greater effect on PIGD than tremor. Thus, GBA variants influence the heterogeneity in symptom progression observed in PD.

Smoking and haptoglobin phenotype modulate serum ferritin and haptoglobin levels in Parkinson disease.

The phenotype Hp 2-1 of haptoglobin has been previously associated with increased risk of Parkinson disease (PD) and with serum iron abnormalities in PD patients. Tobacco smoking has been consistently observed in epidemiology studies to be inversely related to PD risk, with mechanisms that remain uncertain. We recently observed that the protective effect of smoking on PD risk is stronger among subjects of haptoglobin Hp 2-2 and Hp 1-1 phenotypes, and weaker among subjects of haptoglobin Hp 2-1 phenotype. In this PD case-control study, we investigated whether tobacco smoking was associated with changes in serum haptoglobin and ferritin concentration that depended on haptoglobin phenotype among 106 PD patients and 238 controls without PD or other neurodegenerative disorders. Serum ferritin concentration, serum haptoglobin concentration, haptoglobin phenotype, and smoking data information of cases and controls were obtained. Differences in haptoglobin and ferritin concentration by smoking status and pack-years of smoking were calculated as well as regression between pack-years and haptoglobin and ferritin concentration, and the effect of haptoglobin phenotype on these parameters. Tobacco smoking was associated with an elevation in serum haptoglobin concentration, especially among healthy controls of haptoglobin Hp 2-2 phenotype, and with an elevation in ferritin concentration especially among PD patients of haptoglobin Hp 2-1 phenotype. These findings suggest that an elevation in haptoglobin concentration, preferentially among subjects of haptoglobin Hp 2-2 phenotype, could be a contributing factor to the protective effect of smoking on PD risk.

The discovery of LRRK2 p.R1441S, a novel mutation for Parkinson's disease, adds to the complexity of a mutational hotspot.

Mutations in the LRRK2 gene result in autosomal dominant, late onset Parkinson's disease (PD). Three such mutations (p.R1441C, p.R1441G, and p.R1441H) are known to occur within codon 1441, and haplotype analyses indicate that each one has arisen independently on multiple occasions. We sequenced the entire coding region of 18 casual genes for PD or other parkinsonian neurodegenerative disorders in the proband of a family with autosomal dominant PD. We discovered a new missense mutation in the LRRK2 gene, c.4321C>A (p.R1441S). The mutation was predicted to be highly deleterious in silico (Combined Annotation Dependent Depletion score of 25.5) and segregated with disease in the pedigree. The clinical characteristics of affected family members were similar to those described in PD families with other mutations in LRRK2 codon 1441 and included resting tremor, rigidity, bradykinesia, unilateral onset, and a good response to levodopa. Age at onset ranged from 41 to 76. Two of the affected members of the pedigree underwent detailed, longitudinal neuropsychological testing, and both displayed evidence of mild cognitive deficits at or slightly preceding the onset of motor symptoms. LRRK2 p.R1441S represents the fourth pathogenic mutation observed within codon 1441 and its discovery adds to the remarkable complexity of a mutational hotspot within the ROC domain of the LRRK2 protein. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

GBA Variants are associated with a distinct pattern of cognitive deficits in Parkinson's disease.

BACKGROUND: Loss-of-function mutations in the GBA gene are associated with more severe cognitive impairment in PD, but the nature of these deficits is not well understood and whether common GBA polymorphisms influence cognitive performance in PD is not yet known. METHODS: We screened the GBA coding region for mutations and the E326K polymorphism in 1,369 PD patients enrolled at eight sites from the PD Cognitive Genetics Consortium. Participants underwent assessments of learning and memory (Hopkins Verbal Learning Test-Revised), working memory/executive function (Letter-Number Sequencing Test and Trail Making Test A and B), language processing (semantic and phonemic verbal fluency), visuospatial abilities (Benton Judgment of Line Orientation), and global cognitive function (MoCA). We used linear regression to test for association between genotype and cognitive performance with adjustment for important covariates and accounted for multiple testing using Bonferroni's corrections. RESULTS: Mutation carriers (n = 60; 4.4%) and E326K carriers (n = 65; 4.7%) had a higher prevalence of dementia (mutations, odds ratio = 5.1; P = 9.7 × 10(-6) ; E326K, odds ratio = 6.4; P = 5.7 × 10(-7) ) and lower performance on Letter-Number Sequencing (mutations, corrected P[Pc ] = 9.0 × 10(-4) ; E326K, Pc = 0.036), Trail Making B-A (mutations, Pc = 0.018; E326K, Pc = 0.018), and Benton Judgment of Line Orientation (mutations, Pc = 0.0045; E326K, Pc = 0.0013). CONCLUSIONS: Both GBA mutations and E326K are associated with a distinct cognitive profile characterized by greater impairment in working memory/executive function and visuospatial abilities in PD patients. The discovery that E326K negatively impacts cognitive performance approximately doubles the proportion of PD patients we now recognize are at risk for more severe GBA-related cognitive deficits.