Impact of Targeted Systemic Therapy and Radiotherapy on Patients Undergoing Spine Surgery for Metastatic Renal Cell Carcinoma.

BACKGROUND: In patients undergoing spine surgery for renal cell carcinoma (RCC), we sought to: (1) describe patterns of postoperative targeted systemic therapy and radiotherapy (RT), (2) compare perioperative outcomes among those treated with targeted systemic therapy to those without, and (3) evaluate the impact of targeted systemic therapy and/or RT on overall survival (OS) and local recurrence (LR). METHODS: A single-institution, retrospective cohort study of patients undergoing spine surgery for metastatic RCC from 2010 to 2021 was undertaken. Treatment groups were RT alone, targeted systemic therapy alone, dual therapy consisting of RT and targeted systemic therapy, and neither therapy. Multivariable Cox regression controlled for age, race, sex, insurance, and preoperative targeted systemic therapy. RESULTS: Forty-nine patients underwent spine surgery for RCC. Postoperatively, 4 patients (8%) received RT alone, 19 (38.8%) targeted systemic therapy alone, 12 (24.5%) dual therapy, and 13 (28.6%) neither. All groups were similar in demographics, preoperative Karnofsky Performance Score (P = 0.372), tumor size (P = 0.413), readmissions (P = 0.884), complications (P = 0.272), Karnofsky Performance Score (P = 0.466), and Modified McCormick Scale (P = 0.980) at last follow-up. Higher 1-year survival was found in dual therapy (83.3%) compared with other therapies. OS was significantly longer in patients with dual therapy compared with other therapies (log-rank; P = 0.010). Multivariate Cox regression (HR = 0.08, 95% CI = 0.02-0.31, P < 0.001) showed longer OS in dual therapy compared with other therapies. Seven patients (14.3%) experienced LR, and a similar time to LR was found between groups (log-rank; P = 0.190). CONCLUSION: In patients undergoing metastatic spine surgery for RCC, postoperative dual therapy demonstrated significantly higher 1-year survival and OS compared with other therapies. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Multidisciplinary management of metastatic RCC is necessary to ensure timely implementation of targeted systemic therapy and RT to improve outcomes.

Obstacles to receiving postoperative radiation therapy following separation surgery for metastatic spine disease.

OBJECTIVE: Obtaining timely postoperative radiotherapy (RT) following separation surgery is critical to avoid local recurrence of disease yet can be a challenge due to scheduling conflicts, insurance denials, and travel arrangements. In patients undergoing metastatic spine surgery for spinal cord compression, the authors sought to: 1) report the rate of postoperative RT, 2) describe reasons for patients not receiving postoperative RT, and 3) investigate factors that may predict whether a patient receives postoperative RT. METHODS: A single-center retrospective case series was undertaken of all patients who underwent metastatic spine surgery for extradural disease between January 2010 and January 2021. Inclusion criteria were patients with intermediate or radioresistant tumors with evidence of spinal cord compression who underwent surgery. The primary outcome was the occurrence of RT within 3 months following surgery. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was performed controlling for age, BMI, race, total number of decompressed levels, tumor size, other organ metastasis, and preoperative RT or chemotherapy to predict patients receiving postoperative RT. RESULTS: Of 239 patients undergoing spine surgery for metastatic disease, 113 (47.3%) received postoperative RT while 126 (52.7%) did not. In the postoperative RT group, 24 (21.2%) received stereotactic body radiation therapy while 89 (78.8%) received conventional external-beam radiation therapy. The most common reasons for patients not receiving postoperative RT included death or transfer to hospice (31.0%), RT not being recommended by radiation oncology (30.2%), and loss to follow-up (23.8%). On critical review with the radiation oncology department, the authors estimated that 101 of 126 (80.2%) patients who did not receive postoperative RT were potential candidates for postoperative RT. Patients who received postoperative RT had more documented inpatient (48.7% vs 32.5%, p < 0.001) and outpatient (100.0% vs 65.1%, p < 0.001) radiation oncology consultations than those who did not. Additionally, patients who received postoperative RT had a higher rate of postoperative chemotherapy (53.1% vs 25.4%, p < 0.001), while patients who did not receive postoperative RT had a higher rate of preoperative RT (7.1% vs 31.0%, p < 0.001). Multivariable analysis confirmed that patients who received preoperative RT had lower odds of undergoing postoperative RT (OR 0.14, 95% CI 0.06-0.34; p < 0.001), and patients who underwent postoperative chemotherapy had higher odds of undergoing postoperative RT (OR 3.83, 95% CI 2.05-7.17; p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: In the current study reflecting real-world care of patients with metastatic spine disease after undergoing separation surgery, 47% of patients did not receive postoperative RT, and 80% of those patients were potential candidates for postoperative RT. Radiation oncology consultation and postoperative chemotherapy were significantly associated with receiving postoperative RT, whereas preoperative RT was significantly associated with not receiving postoperative RT. The lack of timely postoperative RT highlights a potential gap in metastatic spine tumor care and underscores the necessity for prompt radiation oncology consultation and effective planning.

Stopping at C2 Versus C3/4 in Elective Posterior Cervical Decompression and Fusion: A 5-Year Follow-up Study.

STUDY DESIGN: This is a retrospective cohort study. OBJECTIVE: In patients undergoing elective posterior cervical laminectomy and fusion (PCLF) with a minimum of 5-year follow-up, we sought to compare reoperation rates between patients with an upper instrumented vertebra (UIV) of C2 versus C3/4. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: The long-term outcomes of choosing between C2 versus C3/4 as the UIV in PCLF remain unclear. METHODS: A single-institution, retrospective cohort study from a prospective registry was conducted of patients undergoing elective, degenerative PCLF from December 2010 to June 2018. The primary exposure was UIV of C2 versus C3/4. The primary outcome was reoperation. Multivariable logistic regression controlled for age, smoking, diabetes, and fusion to the thoracic spine. RESULTS: Of the 68 patients who underwent PCLF with 5-year follow-up, 27(39.7%) had a UIV of C2, and 41(60.3%) had a UIV of either C3/4. Groups had similar duration of symptoms (P=0.743), comorbidities (P>0.999), and rates of instrumentation to the thoracic spine (70.4% vs. 53.7%, P=0.210). The C2 group had significantly longer operative time (231.8±65.9 vs. 181.6±44.1 mins, P<0.001) and more fused segments (5.9±1.8 vs. 4.2±0.9, P<0.001). Reoperation rate was lower in the C2 group compared with C3/4 (7.4% vs. 19.5%), though this did not reach statistical significance (P=0.294). Multivariable logistic regression showed increased odds of reoperation for the C3/4 group compared with the C2 group (OR=3.29, 95%CI=0.59-18.11, P=0.170), though statistical significance was not reached. Similarly, the C2 group had a lower rate of instrumentation failure (7.4% vs. 12.2%, P=0.694) and adjacent segment disease/disk herniation (0% vs. 7.3%, P=0.271), though neither trend attained statistical significance. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with a UIV of C2 had less than half the number of reoperations and less adjacent segment disease, though neither trend was statistically significant. Despite a lack of statistical significance, whether a clinically meaningful difference exists between UIV of C2 versus C3/4 should be validated in larger samples with long-term follow-up. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level-3.

Who Can Be Discharged Home after Adult Spinal Deformity Surgery?

Introduction: After adult spinal deformity (ASD) surgery, patients often require postoperative rehabilitation at an inpatient rehabilitation (IPR) center or a skilled nursing facility (SNF). However, home discharge is often preferred by patients and hsas been shown to decrease costs. In a cohort of patients undergoing ASD surgery, we sought to (1) report the incidence of discharge to home, (2) determine the factors significantly associated with discharge to home in the form of a simple scoring system, and (3) evaluate the impact of discharge disposition on patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs). Methods: A single-institution, retrospective cohort study was undertaken for patients undergoing ASD surgery from 2009 to 2021. Inclusion criteria were ≥ 5-level fusion, sagittal/coronal deformity, and at least 2-year follow-up. Exposure variables included preoperative, perioperative, and radiographic data. The primary outcome was discharge status (dichotomized as home vs. IPR/SNF). Secondary outcomes included PROMs, such as the numeric rating scales (NRSs) for back and leg pain, the Oswestry Disability Index (ODI), and EQ-5D. A subanalysis comparing IPR to SNF discharge was conducted. Univariate analysis was performed. Results: Of 221 patients undergoing ASD surgery with a mean age of 63.6 ± 17.6, 112 (50.6%) were discharged home, 71 (32.2%) were discharged to an IPR center, and 38 (17.2%) were discharged to an SNF. Patients discharged home were significantly younger (55.7 ± 20.1 vs. 71.8 ± 9.1, p < 0.001), had lower rate of 2+ comorbidities (38.4% vs. 45.0%, p = 0.001), and had less hypertension (57.1% vs. 75.2%, p = 0.005). Perioperatively, patients who were discharged home had significantly fewer levels instrumented (10.0 ± 3.0 vs. 11.0 ± 3.4 levels, p = 0.030), shorter operative times (381.4 ± 139.9 vs. 461.6 ± 149.8 mins, p < 0.001), less blood loss (1101.0 ± 977.8 vs. 1739.7 ± 1332.9 mL, p < 0.001), and shorter length of stay (5.4 ± 2.8 vs. 9.3 ± 13.9 days, p < 0.001). Radiographically, preoperative SVA (9.1 ± 6.5 vs. 5.2 ± 6.8 cm, p < 0.001), PT (27.5 ± 11.1° vs. 23.4 ± 10.8°, p = 0.031), and T1PA (28.9 ± 12.7° vs. 21.6 ± 13.6°, p < 0.001) were significantly higher in patients who were discharged to an IPR center/SNF. Additionally, the operating surgeon also significantly influenced the disposition status (p < 0.001). A scoring system of the listed factors was proposed and was validated using univariate logistic regression (OR = 1.55, 95%CI = 1.34-1.78, p < 0.001) and ROC analysis, which revealed a cutoff value of > 6 points as a predictor of non-home discharge (AUC = 0.75, 95%CI = 0.68-0.80, p < 0.001, sensitivity = 63.3%, specificity = 74.1%). The factors in the scoring system were age > 56, comorbidities ≥ 2, hypertension, TIL ≥ 10, operative time > 357 mins, EBL > 1200 mL, preop SVA > 6.6 cm, preop PT > 33.6°, and preop T1PA > 15°. When comparing IPR (n = 71) vs. SNF (n = 38), patients discharged to an SNF were significantly older (74.4 ± 8.6 vs. 70.4 ± 9.1, p = 0.029) and were more likely to be female (89.5% vs. 70.4%, p = 0.024). Conclusions: Approximately 50% of patients were discharged home after ASD surgery. A simple scoring system based on age > 56, comorbidities ≥ 2, hypertension, total instrumented levels ≥ 10, operative time > 357 mins, EBL > 1200 mL, preop SVA > 6.6 cm, preop PT > 33.6°, and preop T1PA > 15° was proposed to predict non-home discharge. These findings may help guide postoperative expectations and resource allocation after ASD surgery.

Giuseppe Dagnini (1866-1928): Discoverer of the Trigemino-Cardiac Reflex and Practical Implications in Neurosurgery and Other Medical Specialties.

The authors present the life and art of Giuseppe Dagnini, a renowned Italian physician who was born in Bologna in 1866. He was the chief of the Maggiore Hospital in Bologna and authored valuable scientific works on the trigemino-cardiac reflex which is still applied in modern clinical practice. Dr. Dagnini firstly described the reflex in 1908 postulating that stimulation of one of the 3 branches of the trigeminal nerve triggers the afferent pathway in lowering heart rate. The authors also provide a modern outlook on the clinical implications of the TCR in neurosurgery, neuroanesthesia, and other medical specialties.

Combined Anterior-Posterior vs. Posterior-Only Approach in Adult Spinal Deformity Surgery: Which Strategy Is Superior?

Introduction: Whether a combined anterior-posterior (AP) approach offers additional benefits over the posterior-only (P) approach in adult spinal deformity (ASD) surgery remains unknown. In a cohort of patients undergoing ASD surgery, we compared the combined AP vs. the P-only approach in: (1) preoperative/perioperative variables, (2) radiographic measurements, and (3) postoperative outcomes. Methods: A single-institution, retrospective cohort study was performed for patients undergoing ASD surgery from 2009 to 2021. Inclusion criteria were ≥5-level fusion, sagittal/coronal deformity, and 2-year follow-up. The primary exposure was the operative approach: a combined AP approach or P alone. Postoperative outcomes included mechanical complications, reoperation, and minimal clinically important difference (MCID), defined as 30% of patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs). Multivariable linear regression was controlled for age, BMI, and previous fusion. Results: Among 238 patients undergoing ASD surgery, 34 (14.3%) patients underwent the AP approach and 204 (85.7%) underwent the P-only approach. The AP group consisted mostly of anterior lumbar interbody fusion (ALIF) at L5/S1 (73.5%) and/or L4/L5 (38.0%). Preoperatively, the AP group had more previous fusions (64.7% vs. 28.9%, p < 0.001), higher pelvic tilt (PT) (29.6 ± 11.6° vs. 24.6 ± 11.4°, p = 0.037), higher T1 pelvic angle (T1PA) (31.8 ± 12.7° vs. 24.0 ± 13.9°, p = 0.003), less L1-S1 lordosis (-14.7 ± 28.4° vs. -24.3 ± 33.4°, p < 0.039), less L4-S1 lordosis (-25.4 ± 14.7° vs. 31.6 ± 15.5°, p = 0.042), and higher sagittal vertical axis (SVA) (102.6 ± 51.9 vs. 66.4 ± 71.2 mm, p = 0.005). Perioperatively, the AP approach had longer operative time (553.9 ± 177.4 vs. 397.4 ± 129.0 min, p < 0.001), more interbodies placed (100% vs. 17.6%, p < 0.001), and longer length of stay (8.4 ± 10.7 vs. 7.0 ± 9.6 days, p = 0.026). Radiographically, the AP group had more improvement in T1PA (13.4 ± 8.7° vs. 9.5 ± 8.6°, p = 0.005), L1-S1 lordosis (-14.3 ± 25.6° vs. -3.2 ± 20.2°, p < 0.001), L4-S1 lordosis (-4.7 ± 16.4° vs. 3.2 ± 13.7°, p = 0.008), and SVA (65.3 ± 44.8 vs. 44.8 ± 47.7 mm, p = 0.007). These outcomes remained statistically significant in the multivariable analysis controlling for age, BMI, and previous fusion. Postoperatively, no significant differences were found in mechanical complications, reoperations, or MCID of PROMs. Conclusions: Preoperatively, patients undergoing the combined anterior-posterior approach had higher PT, T1PA, and SVA and lower L1-S1 and L4-S1 lordosis than the posterior-only approach. Despite increased operative time and length of stay, the anterior-posterior approach provided greater sagittal correction without any difference in mechanical complications or PROMs.

Comparison of Outcomes in Patients with Cervical Spine Metastasis After Different Surgical Approaches: A Single-Center Experience.

OBJECTIVE: In patients undergoing cervical spine surgery for metastatic spine disease, we sought to 1) compare perioperative and oncologic outcomes among 3 different operative approaches, 2) report fusion rates, and 3) compare different types of anterior vertebral body replacement. METHODS: A single-center retrospective cohort study of patients undergoing extradural cervical/cervicothoracic spine metastasis surgery between February 2010 and January 2021 was conducted. Operative approaches were anterior-alone, posterior-alone, or combined anterior-posterior, and the grafts/cages used in the anterior fusions were cortical allografts, static cages, or expandable cages. All cages were filled with autograft/allograft. Outcomes included perioperative/postoperative variables, along with fusion rates, functional status, local recurrence (LR), and overall survival (OS). RESULTS: Sixty-one patients underwent cervical spine surgery for metastatic disease, including 11 anterior (18.0%), 28 posterior (45.9%), and 22 combined (36.1%). New postoperative neurologic deficit was the highest in the anterior approach group (P = 0.038), and dysphagia was significantly higher in the combined approach group (P = 0.001). LR (P > 0.999), OS (P = 0.655), and time to both outcomes (log-rank test, OS, P = 0.051, LR, P = 0.187) were not significantly different. Of the 51 patients alive at 3 months, only 19 (37.2%) obtained imaging ≥3 months. Fusion was seen in 11/19 (57.8%) at a median of 8.3 months (interquartile range, 4.6-13.7). Among the anterior corpectomies, the following graft/cage was used: 6 allografts (54.5%), 4 static cages (36.3%), and 1 expandable cage (9.0%), with no difference found in outcomes among the 3 groups. CONCLUSIONS: The only discernible differences between operative approaches were that patients undergoing an anterior approach had higher rates of new postoperative neurologic deficit, and the combined approach group had higher rates of postoperative dysphagia.

Placement of a Kickstand Rod in Adult Spinal Deformity Surgery: A Simple 8-Step Process With Intraoperative Images and Video.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: In adult spinal deformity (ASD) surgery, operative correction of coronal malalignment remains a challenging surgical task. Given the proven effectiveness and longevity of the kickstand rod (KSR) technique and its powerful ability to correct coronal malalignment, this technique is an important tool to have available. Therefore, we sought to provide a simple 8-step description of the KSR technique using intraoperative images and video in a patient undergoing combined sagittal and coronal malalignment correction. METHODS: A 68-year-old female with a previous history of T11-S1 posterior spinal fusion presented with mid thoracic back pain, leg paresthesias, and a right-leaning posture. The patient underwent a T4-pelvis extension of fusion, T8-11 posterior column osteotomies, and placement of a right-sided KSR to address her coronal malalignment. RESULTS: The KSR technique is summarized in the following steps: (1) place kickstand screw, (2) place contralateral main rod and tighten all set plugs, (3) place ipsilateral main rod and keep rod long distally, (4) place a domino in the lower/mid thoracic area, (5) place the KSR and leave the rod long proximally, (6) tighten the ipsilateral main rod above the domino, (7) loosen the ipsilateral main rod below the domino, and (8) place a rod gripper below the domino and distract. Postoperatively, the coronal vertical axis improved from 4.8 to 0.6 cm, and the sagittal vertical axis improved from 9.5 to 3.9 cm. CONCLUSION: The current case report provides a simple 8-step description of the KSR technique to improve coronal malalignment accompanied by intraoperative images and video.

Longer Screws Decrease the Risk of Radiographic Pseudarthrosis Following Elective Anterior Cervical Discectomy and Fusion.

STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. OBJECTIVES: In patients undergoing elective anterior cervical discectomy and fusion (ACDF), we sought to determine the impact of screw length on: (1) radiographic pseudarthrosis, (2) pseudarthrosis requiring reoperation, and (3) patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs). METHODS: A single-institution, retrospective cohort study was undertaken from 2010-21. The primary independent variables were: screw length (mm), screw length divided by the anterior-posterior vertebral body diameter (VB%), and the presence of any screw with VB% < 75% vs all screws with VB% ≥ 75%. Multivariable logistic regression controlled for age, BMI, gender, smoking, American Society of Anesthesiology grade, number of levels fused, and whether a corpectomy was performed. RESULTS: Of 406 patients undergoing ACDF, levels fused were: 1-level (39.4%), 2-level (42.9%), 3-level (16.7%), and 4-level (1.0%). Mean screw length was 14.3 ± 2.3 mm, and mean VB% was 74.4 ± 11.2. A total of 293 (72.1%) had at least one screw with VB% < 75%, 113 (27.8%) had all screws with VB% ≥ 75%, and 141 (34.7%) patients had radiographic pseudarthrosis at 1-year. Patients who had any screw with VB% < 75% had a higher rate of radiographic pseudarthrosis compared to those had all screws with VB% ≥ 75% (39.6% vs 22.1%, P < .001). Multivariable logistic regression revealed that a higher VB% (OR = .97, 95%CI = .95-.99, P = .035) and having all screws with VB% ≥ 75% (OR = .51, 95%CI = .27-.95, P = .037) significantly decreased the odds of pseudarthrosis at 1-year, with no difference in reoperation or PROMs (all P > .05). CONCLUSION: Longer screws taking up ≥75% of the vertebral body protected against radiographic pseudarthrosis at 1-year. Maximizing screw length in ACDF is an easily modifiable factor directly under the surgeon's control that may mitigate the risk of pseudarthrosis.

Artificial Intelligence to Preoperatively Predict Proximal Junction Kyphosis Following Adult Spinal Deformity Surgery: Soft Tissue Imaging May Be Necessary for Accurate Models.

STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective cohort. OBJECTIVE: In a cohort of patients undergoing adult spinal deformity (ASD) surgery, we used artificial intelligence to compare three models of preoperatively predicting radiographic proximal junction kyphosis (PJK) using: (1) traditional demographics and radiographic measurements, (2) raw preoperative scoliosis radiographs, and (3) raw preoperative thoracic magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Despite many proposed risk factors, PJK following ASD surgery remains difficult to predict. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A single-institution, retrospective cohort study was undertaken for patients undergoing ASD surgery from 2009 to 2021. PJK was defined as a sagittal Cobb angle of upper-instrumented vertebra (UIV) and UIV+2>10° and a postoperative change in UIV/UIV+2>10°. For model 1, a support vector machine was used to predict PJK within 2 years postoperatively using clinical and traditional sagittal/coronal radiographic variables and intended levels of instrumentation. Next, for model 2, a convolutional neural network (CNN) was trained on raw preoperative lateral and posterior-anterior scoliosis radiographs. Finally, for model 3, a CNN was trained on raw preoperative thoracic T1 MRIs. RESULTS: A total of 191 patients underwent ASD surgery with at least 2-year follow-up and 89 (46.6%) developed radiographic PJK within 2 years. Model 1: Using clinical variables and traditional radiographic measurements, the model achieved a sensitivity: 57.2% and a specificity: 56.3%. Model 2: a CNN with raw scoliosis x-rays predicted PJK with a sensitivity: 68.2% and specificity: 58.3%. Model 3: a CNN with raw thoracic MRIs predicted PJK with average sensitivity: 73.1% and specificity: 79.5%. Finally, an attention map outlined the imaging features used by model 3 elucidated that soft tissue features predominated all true positive PJK predictions. CONCLUSIONS: The use of raw MRIs in an artificial intelligence model improved the accuracy of PJK prediction compared with raw scoliosis radiographs and traditional clinical/radiographic measurements. The improved predictive accuracy using MRI may indicate that PJK is best predicted by soft tissue degeneration and muscle atrophy.

Unplanned Readmission After Surgery for Cervical Spine Metastases.

OBJECTIVE: Patients undergoing surgery for cervical spine metastases are at risk for unplanned readmission due to comorbidities and chemotherapy/radiation. Our objectives were to: 1) report the incidence of unplanned readmission, 2) identify risk factors associated with unplanned readmission, and 3) determine the impact of an unplanned readmission on long-term outcomes. METHODS: A single-center, retrospective, case-control study was undertaken of patients undergoing cervical spine surgery for metastatic disease between 02/2010 and 01/2021. The primary outcome of interest was unplanned readmission within 6 months. Survival analysis was performed for overall survival (OS) and local recurrence (LR). RESULTS: A total of 61 patients underwent cervical spine surgery for metastatic disease with the following approaches: 11 (18.0%) anterior, 28 (45.9%) posterior, and 22 (36.1%) combined. Mean age was 60.9 ± 11.2 years and 38 (62.3%) were males. A total of 9/61 (14.8%) patients had an unplanned readmission, 3 for surgical reasons and 6 for medical reasons. No difference was found in demographics, preoperative Karnofsky Performance Scale (P = 0.992), motor strength (P = 0.477), or comorbidities (P = 0.213) between readmitted patients versus not. Readmitted patients had a higher rate of preoperative radiation (P = 0.009). No statistical differences were found in operative time (P = 0.893), estimated blood loss (P = 0.676), length of stay (P = 0.720), discharge disposition (P = 0.279), and operative approach (P = 0.450). Furthermore, no difference was found regarding complications (P = 0.463), postoperative Karnofsky Performance Scale (P = 0.535), and postoperative Modified McCormick Scale (P = 0.586). Lastly, unplanned readmissions were not associated with OS (log-rank; P = 0.094) or LR (log-rank; P = 0.110). CONCLUSIONS: In patients undergoing cervical spine metastasis surgery, readmission occurred in 15% of patients, 33% for surgical reasons, and 67% for medical reasons. Preoperative radiotherapy was associated with an increased rate of unplanned readmissions, yet readmission had no association with OS or LR.

Reevaluating Innovations in Medical Student Neurosurgery Education: Lessons Learned Today from Data Collected Before COVID-19.

OBJECTIVE: Virtual learning has made neurosurgery education more available to medical students (MSs) of all stages than ever before. We aimed to evaluate the impact of on-site learning in order to assess whether a return to this method of teaching, when safe, is warranted for MSs of all years. METHODS: Registrants of the 2019 MS Neurosurgery Training Camps were sent precourse and postcourse surveys to assess changes in self-assessed confidence in concrete neurosurgical skills. Data were analyzed using a 2-tailed paired Student's t-test for continuous variables. A P value <0.05 was considered significant. RESULTS: The 2019 Training Camp had 105 attendees, of whom 94 (89.5%) completed both surveys. Students reported statistically significant improvements in every surveyed skill area, except for understanding what is and is not sterile in an operating room. The cohort of MS 3/4 students indicated a postcourse decrease in confidence in their ability to understand what is and is not sterile in an operating room (93.69 ± 16.41 vs. 86.20 ± 21.18; P < 0.05). MS 3/4 students did not benefit in their ability to perform a neurologic examination or tie knots using a 1-handed technique. CONCLUSIONS: Neurosurgical education initiatives for MSs should continue to be developed. Hands-on neurosurgical training experiences for MSs serve as a valuable educational experience. Improvement in training models will lead to capitalizing on MS education to better improve readiness for neurosurgical residency without concern for patient safety.

The slope of the learning curve in 600 consecutive endoscopic transsphenoidal pituitary surgeries.

BACKGROUND: Endonasal endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery (EETS) for pituitary adenoma has become a mainstay of treatment over the last two decades and it is generally accepted that once this learning curve is achieved, a plateau is reached with little incremental improvement. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to assess the slope of the learning curve over a long period of time for a variety of outcomes measures. METHODS: We examined outcomes and complications in a consecutive series of 600 EETS for pituitary adenoma grouped into quartiles based on date of surgery. RESULTS: GTR significantly increased across quartiles from 55 to 79% in the last quartile (p < 0.005). The rate of intraoperative CSF leak significantly decreased from 60% in the first quartile to 33% in the last quartile and the rate of lumbar drain placement from 28% in the first quartile to 6% in the last quartile (p < 0.005). Hormonal remission for secreting adenomas increased from 68% in the first quartile to 90% in the last quartile (p < 0.05). The rate of post-operative CSF leak trended lower (3% in first quartile to 0.7% in last two quartiles). The greatest improvement in outcome occurred between the first and second quartiles (19.9%), but persistent improvement occurred between the second and third (6.7%) and third and fourth quartiles (8.0%). CONCLUSION: Although the slope of the learning curve is steeper earlier in a surgeon's experience, the slope does not plateau and continues to increase even over more than a decade.

Medical Student Concerns Relating to Neurosurgery Education During COVID-19.

BACKGROUND: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has created significant obstacles within medical education. For medical students interested in pursuing neurosurgery as a specialty, the educational policies surrounding COVID-19 have resulted in unique challenges. The present study used a nationwide survey to identify the concerns of medical students interested in pursuing neurosurgery during the COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS: Students who had previously registered for medical student neurosurgery training camps were sent an online Qualtrics survey requesting them to assess how the COVID-19 pandemic was affecting their neurosurgical education. The Pearson χ2 test and post hoc pairwise Fisher exact test were used for analysis of categorical variables, and the 2-tailed paired Student t test was used for continuous variables. RESULTS: The survey was distributed to 852 medical students, with 127 analyzed responses. Concerns regarding conferences and networking opportunities (63%), clinical experience (59%), and board examination scores (42%) were most frequently cited. Of the third-year medical students, 76% reported ≥1 cancelled or postponed neurosurgery rotation. On average, students were more likely to take 1 year off from medical school after than before the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, measured from 0 to 100 (25.3 ± 36.0 vs. 39.5 ± 37.5; P = 0.004). Virtual mentorship pairing was the highest rated educational intervention suggested by first- and second-year medical students. The third- and fourth-year medical students had cited virtual surgical skills workshops most frequently. CONCLUSIONS: The results from the present nationwide survey have highlighted the concerns of medical students regarding their neurosurgery education during the COVID-19 pandemic. With these findings, neurosurgery organizations can consider targeted plans for students of each year to continue their education and development.

Medical Students' Perceived Interests and Concerns for a Career in Neurosurgery.

OBJECTIVE: The factors that attract and concern medical students about a career in neurosurgery have never been clearly characterized or delineated in a large nationwide cohort of medical students intending to pursue a career in neurosurgery. The objective of the present study was to characterize the factors that influence medical student interest in neurosurgery and assess the effects of a formal neurosurgery training course on participants' perceptions of a career in neurosurgery. METHODS: Before the Medical Student Neurosurgery Training Camp for subinternship preparation, registered students were surveyed about their interest level in neurosurgery, factors that attracted or concerned them about a career in neurosurgery, attendance at a national neurosurgery conference or course, formal clinical neurosurgery exposure in medical school, and whether they had a resident or attending mentor in neurosurgery. At the end of the course, all the participants completed the surveyed again. P < 0.05 was considered significant on Pearson's χ2 and Fisher's exact tests for categorical variables and 2-tailed paired Student's t tests for continuous variables. RESULTS: Of the training camp attendees, >95% completed both pre- and postcourse surveys, including 41 first-year, 19 second-year, 30 third-year, and 5 fourth-year medical school students. The most common factors that concerned students about a career in neurosurgery were work-life balance (76%) and competitiveness (56%). All factors of concern were decreased in the postcourse survey, except for competitiveness. A small cohort (8.4%) of students had no concerns about a career in neurosurgery; this cohort had doubled to 17% after the course (P < 0.05). The students that indicated no concern had a greater postcourse interest level in neurosurgery (95.8 ± 8.7 vs. 86.7 ± 20.5; P < 0.05). Student reasons for an interest in neurosurgery included intellectually stimulating work (94%), interest in neurosciences (93%), effect on patients (84%), innovation and new technology (80%), research opportunities (77%), and prestige (24%). All reasons increased after the course, with the exception of prestige, which decreased to 22%. CONCLUSION: A training camp for students pursuing a neurosurgery subinternship was effective in providing transparency and positively influencing the factors that attract and concern students about a career in neurosurgery. Characterization of medical student perceptions of neurosurgery from a large, nationwide cohort of students pursuing a subinternship has provided novel data and could help identify factors protecting against burnout later in life.

Impact of Medicaid insurance on outcomes following endoscopic transsphenoidal pituitary surgery.

OBJECTIVE: Despite the rise of studies in the neurosurgical literature suggesting that patients with Medicaid insurance have inferior outcomes, there remains a paucity of data on the impact of insurance on outcomes after endonasal endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery (EETS). Given the increasing importance of complications in quality-based healthcare metrics, the objective of this study was to assess whether Medicaid insurance type influences outcomes in EETS for pituitary adenoma. METHODS: The authors analyzed a prospectively acquired database of EETS for pituitary adenoma from 2005 to 2018 at NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital, Weill Cornell Medicine. All patients with Medicaid insurance were identified. As a control group, the clinical, socioeconomic, and radiographic data of all other patients in the series with non-Medicaid insurance were reviewed. Statistical significance was determined with an alpha < 0.05 using Pearson chi-square and Fisher's exact tests for categorical variables and the independent-samples t-test for continuous variables. RESULTS: Of 584 patients undergoing EETS for pituitary adenoma, 57 (10%) had Medicaid insurance. The maximum tumor diameter was significantly larger for Medicaid patients (26.1 ± 12 vs 23.1 ± 11 mm for controls, p < 0.05). Baseline comorbidities including diabetes mellitus, hypertension, smoking history, and BMI were not significantly different between Medicaid patients and controls. Patients with Medicaid insurance had a significantly higher rate of any complication (14% vs 7% for controls, p < 0.05) and long-term cranial neuropathy (5% vs 1% for controls, p < 0.05). There were no statistically significant differences in endocrine outcome or vision outcome. The mean postoperative length of stay was significantly longer for Medicaid patients compared to the controls (9.4 ± 31 vs 3.6 ± 3 days, p < 0.05). This difference remained significant even when accounting for outliers (5.6 ± 2.5 vs 3.0 ± 2.7 days for controls, p < 0.05). The most common causes of extended length of stay greater than 1 standard deviation for Medicaid patients were management of perioperative complications and disposition challenges. The rate of 30-day readmission was 7% for Medicaid patients and 4.4% for controls, which was not a statistically significant difference. CONCLUSIONS: The authors found that larger tumor diameter, longer postoperative length of stay, higher rate of complications, and long-term cranial neuropathy were significantly associated with Medicaid insurance. There were no statistically significant differences in baseline comorbidities, apoplexy, endocrine outcome, vision outcome, or 30-day readmission.

How long is the tail end of the learning curve? Results from 1000 consecutive endoscopic endonasal skull base cases following the initial 200 cases.

OBJECTIVE: Endoscopic endonasal approaches (EEAs) to the skull base have evolved over the last 20 years to become an essential component of a comprehensive skull base practice. Many case series show a learning curve from the earliest cases, in which the authors were inexperienced or were not using advanced closure techniques. It is generally accepted that once this learning curve is achieved, a plateau is reached with little incremental improvement. Cases performed during the early steep learning curve were eliminated to examine whether the continued improvement exists over the "tail end" of the curve. METHODS: A prospectively acquired database of all EEA cases performed by the senior authors at Weill Cornell Medicine/NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital was reviewed. The first 200 cases were eliminated and the next 1000 consecutive cases were examined to avoid the bias created by the early learning curve. RESULTS: Of the 1000 cases, the most common pathologies included pituitary adenoma (51%), meningoencephalocele or CSF leak repair (8.6%), meningioma (8.4%), craniopharyngioma (7.3%), basilar invagination (3.1%), Rathke's cleft cyst (2.8%), and chordoma (2.4%). Use of lumbar drains decreased from the first half to the second half of our series (p <0.05) as did the authors' use of fat alone (p <0.005) or gasket alone (p <0.005) for dural closure, while the use of a nasoseptal flap increased (p <0.005). Although mean tumor diameter was constant (on average), gross-total resection (GTR) increased from 60% in the first half to 73% in the second half (p <0.005). GTR increased for all pathologies but most significantly for chordoma (56% vs 100%, p <0.05), craniopharyngioma (47% vs 0.71%, p <0.05) and pituitary adenoma (67% vs 75%, p <0.05). Hormonal cure for secreting adenomas also increased from 83% in the first half to 89% in the second half (p <0.05). The rate of any complication was unchanged at 6.4% in the first half and 6.2% in the latter half of cases, and vascular injury occurred in only 0.6% of cases. Postoperative CSF leak occurred in 2% of cases and was unchanged between the first and second half of the series. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that contrary to popular belief, the surgical learning curve does not plateau but can continue for several years depending on the complexity of the endpoints considered. These findings may have implications for clinical trial design, surgical education, and patient safety measures.