History of Cranial Surgery in World War I: Experience on the Italian Front.

Since ancient history, men have been attempting to intervene when skull trauma occurs. The majority of traumas were always linked to war injuries, and in the modern era, the culprit was reached during World War I. Cranial traumas in wartime were very common, and consequently, physicians in wartime became particularly interested in the subject of cranial traumatology. In the following text, we want to bring to light the experience of some of the pioneers of cranial surgery in Italy during the First Great War. In fact before the war, very few medical officers had received training in central nervous system surgery. In addition, the surgical instruments for that clinical activity were inadequate and obsolete, but to deal with the medical emergency that had arisen on the front lines, the Italian government established Battlefield Medical Schools. And it is also from the reports and lectures of surgeons working on the front lines that the next generations of neurosurgeons were able to develop this surgical field into the complex and well-established surgical specialty that it is today.

The benefit of antibiotic-combined Mg-hydroxyapatite bone graft substitute over autologous bone for surgical site infection prevention in posterolateral spinal fusion: a retrospective cohort study.

Retrospective cohort study. Objective: The authors' goal was to clarify whether a bone substitute combined with antibiotics might gain a hold in spinal surgery as a preventive treatment for early infections (EIs). Background: A relatively infrequent but severe complication in spinal surgery is the occurrence of EIs. Methods: The authors retrospectively compared a population undergoing posterolateral fusion with Mg-enriched hydroxyapatite paste mixed with 60 mg rifampicin powder, with a matched population treated with autologous bone without antibiotics. A total of 30 patients from 2020 to 2021 were included in our study. We estimated EI's relative risk and the number needed to treat. Statistical analyses were performed using the R statistical package v3.4.1 (http://www.r-project.org). Results: No early infections occurred in the population treated with antibiotic-combined bone substitutes, compared with 6.7% of patients treated with autologous bone without antibiotics. The relative risk of EIs was 0.33 (P=.49; 95% CI=0.01-7.58) and the number needed to treat was 15. Conclusions: The results support the hypothesis that combining bone substitutes with antibiotics may decrease the risk of EIs and could be a viable option to improve spinal surgery outcomes. However, a larger sample size would be needed to confirm the benefit of rifampicin-combined Mg-enriched hydroxyapatite substitutes over autologous bone for surgical site infection prevention. Level of Evidence: Level 3.

Decompressive surgery in cerebral venous sinus thrombosis due to vaccine-induced immune thrombotic thrombocytopenia.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis due to vaccine-induced immune thrombotic thrombocytopenia (CVST-VITT) is an adverse drug reaction occurring after severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) vaccination. CVST-VITT patients often present with large intracerebral haemorrhages and a high proportion undergoes decompressive surgery. Clinical characteristics, therapeutic management and outcomes of CVST-VITT patients who underwent decompressive surgery are described and predictors of in-hospital mortality in these patients are explored. METHODS: Data from an ongoing international registry of patients who developed CVST within 28 days of SARS-CoV-2 vaccination, reported between 29 March 2021 and 10 May 2022, were used. Definite, probable and possible VITT cases, as defined by Pavord et al. (N Engl J Med 2021; 385: 1680-1689), were included. RESULTS: Decompressive surgery was performed in 34/128 (27%) patients with CVST-VITT. In-hospital mortality was 22/34 (65%) in the surgical and 27/94 (29%) in the non-surgical group (p < 0.001). In all surgical cases, the cause of death was brain herniation. The highest mortality rates were found amongst patients with preoperative coma (17/18, 94% vs. 4/14, 29% in the non-comatose; p < 0.001) and bilaterally absent pupillary reflexes (7/7, 100% vs. 6/9, 67% with unilaterally reactive pupil, and 4/11, 36% with bilaterally reactive pupils; p = 0.023). Postoperative imaging revealed worsening of index haemorrhagic lesion in 19 (70%) patients and new haemorrhagic lesions in 16 (59%) patients. At a median follow-up of 6 months, 8/10 of surgical CVST-VITT who survived admission were functionally independent. CONCLUSIONS: Almost two-thirds of surgical CVST-VITT patients died during hospital admission. Preoperative coma and bilateral absence of pupillary responses were associated with higher mortality rates. Survivors often achieved functional independence.

Craniotomy Burr Hole Covers: A Comparative Study of Biomechanical, Radiological, and Aesthetic Outcomes Using 3 Different Plug Materials.

Burr holes in the cranial vault are usually made during trephination for craniotomy or drainage of chronic subdural hematomas. The resulting cranial defect might bring to unsatisfactory esthetic outcome. In the current study the authors report clinical data regarding a cohort of patients who were treated with 3 different types of burr hole covers; autologous bone dust from skull trephination, and 2 different types of cylindric plug made out of porous hydroxyapatite in order to evaluate medium and long-term esthetic and radiological outcomes. Twenty patients were consecutively enrolled in the study and in each patient all 3 types of materials were used to cover different holes. Clinical and radiological outcomes at 6 and 12 months, were analyzed for all 3 types of plugs in terms of thickness of the graft coaptation of margins, remodeling, fractures, mobilization, and contour irregularities. In all craniotomy holes filled with autologous bone dust the authors have observed partial or complete bone reabsorption at 1 year and in 60% of the cases a visible and palpable cranial vault contour irregularity was reported. Both types of bone substitutes gave satisfactory results, comparable to autologous bone dust at 6 months and superior at 12 months, especially in terms of thickness and esthetic appearance. Hydroxyapatite plugs have shown better esthetic and biomechanical results and higher patients' satisfaction compared to autologous bone dust while not giving any additional complications.

Critical Evaluation of the Scientific Literature Concerning Bone Graft Alternatives in Spinal Surgery and Focus on Bioceramics.

To improve solid spinal fusion while avoiding the morbidity associated with autograft harvesting procedures, numerous alternatives have been investigated, including allograft, demineralized bone matrix (DBM), cell-based therapies and growth factors (i.e., bone morphogenetic proteins, platelet concentrates), and ceramic-based biomaterials. Even though all of these approaches have the potential to improve the outcome of spinal fusion procedures, most of them have not yet been validated by evidence-based clinical results, and thus they are not strongly advisable for clinical use, in addition to being particularly expensive. Here, we give an overview of the current clinical evidence for bone graft alternatives for spine surgery procedures. We will also evaluate the pros and cons of their use and briefly review the more relevant literature.

The Antibiotic Immersion of Custom-Made Porous Hydroxyapatite Cranioplasty: A Multicentric Cohort Study.

ABSTRACT: Cranioplasty is a common neurosurgical procedure performed to reconstruct cranial defects. The most common cranioplasty materials used today can be divided into 2 types: autologous bone and bone substitutes, such as polyetheretherketone, titanium mesh, poly-methyl methacrylate, and Hydroxyapatite (HA). Infection represents one of the most feared complications, ranging from 2.3% to 20%. Early implant infections occur within 30 days from the operation and are mostly due to pathogens from the skin and the paranasal cavity. The authors aim to demonstrate the efficacy of our preoperative antibiotic immersion protocol of custom-made HA prosthesis, to prevent early implant infections. The authors compare this population to cranioplasties without preoperative antibiotic elution and those with anonstandardized antibiotic elution. The authors retrospectively analyzed data from patients referred to 6 different hospitals in northern Italy, in the period 2000 to 2020. Inclusion criteria were patients requiring reconstruction of thecal bone with HA prosthesis after post-traumatic decompressive surgery; age more than 18 years; detailed patient history and clinical data; and follow-up of minimum 6 months. A total of 77 cranioplasties were included in the study, along with 120 retrospective cases in comparison. Infections occurred in 2.6% of cranioplasties with antibiotic immersion compared to 7.8% of cranioplasties without. Even if nonsignificant, these results support our hypothesis that pretreatment of HA implants with antibiotic appears to prevent cranioplasty infections and could be a viable option to improve cranioplasty outcomes in the future.

Can the Elastic of Surgical Face Masks Stimulate Ear Protrusion in Children?

In this period of the Covid-19 pandemic, a protective mask has become a common object of use to contain virus transmission. The imminent need for masks has led many governments to produce them, including surgical masks with elastic loops or masks with side cuts at the ears. Among those on the market, surgical masks with elastic loops are the ones most chosen by parents for their children. These elastics cause constant compression on the skin and, consequently, on the cartilage of the auricle, leading to erythematous and painful lesions of the retroauricular skin when the masks are used for many hours a day. Pre-adolescent children have undeveloped auricular cartilage with less resistance to deformation; prolonged pressure from the elastic loops of the mask at the hollow or, even worse, at the anthelix level can influence the correct growth and angulation of the outer ear. In fact, unlike when using conservative methods for the treatment of protruding ears, this prolonged pressure can increase the cephaloauricular angle of the outer auricle. It is important for the authorities supplying the masks to be aware of this potential risk and for alternative solutions to be found while maintaining the possibility of legitimate prevention of the potential spread of the virus.Level of Evidence V This journal requires that authors assign a level of evidence to each article. For a full description of these evidence-based medicine ratings, please refer to the table of contents or the online instructions to authors www.springer.com/00266 .

Custom-Made Porous Hydroxyapatite Cranioplasty in Patients with Tumor Versus Traumatic Brain Injury: A Single-Center Case Series.

BACKGROUND: Cranioplasty is a common neurosurgical procedure with the goal of restoring skull integrity. Custom-made porous hydroxyapatite prostheses have long been used for cranial reconstruction in patients with traumatic brain injury. We present a large consecutive series of 2 groups of patients undergoing cranioplasty with hydroxyapatite custom bone and compare the adverse events (AEs) between the 2 groups. METHODS: We examined a series of consecutive patients who underwent cranioplasty using custom-made porous hydroxyapatite implants following tumor resection and traumatic brain injury at a single center between March 2003 and May 2018. The implants were designed and produced according to the surgeon's specifications and based on the patient's computed tomography scan data obtained through a standardized protocol. AEs were recorded. RESULTS: Information on 38 patients with tumor and 39 patients with traumatic brain injury was collected and analyzed. A significant difference in the timing of surgery was found between the 2 groups; single-stage surgery was performed in 84% of patients in the tumor versus 8% of those in the traumatic brain injury group (P < 0.0001). The rate of AEs was not significantly different between the 2 groups (P = 0.4309) and was not related to the timing of surgery. CONCLUSIONS: Custom-made hydroxyapatite cranioplasty is a solution for cranial reconstruction in patients with cranial tumors. The low incidence of AEs in a consecutive series of patients with either trauma or tumors demonstrates that these prostheses represent a safe solution independent of the characteristics of cases.

Italian census on neurosciences: the ICoNe2 study.

BACKGROUND: The growing impact of the emergency neurology of trauma centers and of mechanical thrombectomy for the treatment of acute ischemic stroke is revolutionizing the domain of eurosciences. METHODS: A census focused on the demographic distribution of the three main cohorts of neurosciences (neurologists, neuroradiologists, and neurosurgeons) was conducted in Italy between December 2015 and February 2017, and results were compared to the estimated retirement rates and loss for other reasons. RESULTS: The total number of neurosciences specialists active in Italy was 4394 at the end of the period of the survey. The estimated retirement rates and losses seem not be supplied by the physicians in training in the same period. CONCLUSIONS: A proper redistribution of the resources and the modification of the training programs seem to be mandatory to maintain acceptable standards of care for the Italian neurosciences during the next decade.

Successful Strategies for Dealing With Infected, Custom-Made Hydroxyapatite Cranioplasty.

When a cranioplasty implant becomes infected, standard operating procedure dictates its removal and the initiation of a long course of antibiotic therapy. However, removing such a prosthesis can have a series of adverse consequences, including delayed cognitive and motor recovery, lack of brain tissue protection, unsightly deformity, and the need for two additional surgical procedures, not to mention the additional costs involved. To maintain the advantages of cranioplasty, we opted for a conservative approach (levofloxacin and rifampicin every 24 hours for 8 weeks) in a 68-year-old woman whose custom-made porous hydroxyapatite implant, fitted following aneurysm clipping, had become infected. The tissues overlying the implant were curettaged, and the patient's clinical condition, blood markers, and infection course were continuously monitored (local monitoring was performed by single-photon emission computed tomography [SPECT]/computed tomography [CT after intravenous administration of Tc-labeled antigranulocyte antibody). Blood tests and SPECT/CT evidenced a progressive reduction in phlogosis indices and infection locus, even 1 month after antibiotic therapy was commenced, and at 2 years from cranioplasty, the same tests and clinical examination were negative. At 6-year follow-up, clinical assessment revealed nothing out of the ordinary.Hence, specific cases (hydroxyapatite prosthesis, intact dura, cranial CT and magnetic resonance imaging negative for empyema, well-vascularized scalp, antibiotic-responsive bacteria) of infected cranial implant can be treated using a conservative approach consisting of appropriate antibiotic therapy, accompanied by local debridement where necessary, and assiduous monitoring of phlogosis indices and local verification via labeled-leukocyte scintigraphy. Our report, which was compiled after a long-term follow-up period, shows that this conservative procedure appears to be a viable option in cases of infected, custom-made hydroxyapatite cranioplasty, provided that some basic rules concerning clinical and instrumental standards are adhered to, as clearly stated in our report.

Septic complication following porous hydroxyapatite cranioplasty: prosthesis retention management.

After failing of autologous cranioplasty or when the bone flap is unavailable, the alloplastic (heterologous) materials are the choice for cranial reconstruction. No agreement has been reported about the material with a significant lower risk of septic complications. This is due to extremely heterogeneous prognostic factors related not only to the material used but also to the surgical procedures and/or to the timing of the procedure. More attention should be focused on the material whose characteristic could enable a delay in bacterial colonization, where an antibiotic therapy could be effective, without need of prosthesis removal. Four cases of severe septic complication following cranioplasty with porous hydroxyapatite (HA) prosthesis are presented. Patients were conservatively treated, without heterologous bone flap removal. All of our patients presented reasons for delaying HA cranioplasty removal: patients #1, 3, and 4 had an associated shunted hydrocephalus and the need for not removing the prosthesis was related to the predictable recurrence of overshunting and/or sinking skin flap syndrome. In patient #4, the revision surgery would have also damaged the microvascular flap with latissimus dorsi muscle used by plastic surgeon for skin reconstruction. In patient #2, the patient refused revision surgery. In all cases, systemic and/or radiological signs of infection were observed. In patient #2 the infective process surrounded completely the HA prosthesis, while it was located in the epidural region in patients #1 and 4. In patient #3, a surgical curettage of the infected wound was performed over the HA prosthesis. Following prosthesis retention management with antibiotic therapy, all patients revealed systemic and/or radiological signs of sepsis resolution at follow-up. The possibility to avoid a prosthesis removal with effective antibiotic treatment is mainly due to the combination of three factors: targeted antibiotic therapy, good anatomical area revascularization (resulting of an "in situ" intake of antibiotics), and the biomimetism of HA prosthesis. Further investigations in a larger number of cases need to confirm these observations.

Cranioplasty: Review of Materials.

Cranioplasty remains a difficult procedure for all craniofacial surgeons, particularly when concerning the reconstruction of large lacunae in the skull. Considering the significant clinical and economic impact of the procedure, the search for materials and strategies to provide more comfortable and reliable surgical procedures is one of the most important challenges faced by modern craniofacial medicine.The purpose of this study was to compare the available data regarding the safety and clinical efficacy of materials and techniques currently used for the reconstruction of the skull. Accordingly, the scientific databases were searched for the following keywords autologous bone, biomaterials, cranial reconstruction, cranioplasty, hydroxyapatite, polyetheretherketone, polymethylmethacrylate, and titanium. This literature review emphasizes the benefits and weaknesses of each considered material commonly used for cranioplasty, especially in terms of infectious complications, fractures, and morphological outcomes.As regards the latter, this appears to be very similar among the different materials when custom three-dimensional modeling is used for implant development, suggesting that this criterion is strongly influenced by implant design. However, the overall infection rate can vary from 0% to 30%, apparently dependent on the type of material used, likely in virtue of the wide variation in their chemico-physical composition. Among the different materials used for cranioplasty implants, synthetics such as polyetheretherketone, polymethylmethacrylate, and titanium show a higher primary tear resistance, whereas hydroxyapatite and autologous bone display good biomimetic properties, although the latter has been ascribed a variable reabsorption rate of between 3% and 50%.In short, all cranioplasty procedures and materials have their advantages and disadvantages, and none of the currently available materials meet the criteria required for an ideal implant. Hence, the choice of cranioplasty materials is still essentially reliant on the surgeon's preference.

Spontaneous fractures in custom-made porous hydroxyapatite cranioplasty implants: is fragility the only culprit?

BACKGROUND: Although the porous hydroxyapatite (PHA) used in custom-made cranioplasty implants is a material appreciated for its biomimetic properties, before osteointegration it is initially very fragile. Nevertheless, we wondered whether this primary fragility is entirely due to brittleness or whether the surgeon's actions may influence the behavior of the material. METHODS: To study the influence of the surgeon's behavior, we made a virtual model of a custom-made PHA cranioplasty implant and submitted it to three implant procedural variables using finite element methods. In the first test, a scenario in which the surgeon's design, validation, and positioning techniques are impeccable, the edges of the implant adhered well to the craniectomy margins. In the second test, a discrepancy between a portion of the perimeter of the craniectomy and the profile of the prosthesis was modeled, and in the third test, several gaps were simulated between the implant and the craniectomy margins. RESULTS: Our mathematical model showed that when local and general discontinuities were included in the test scenarios, there was an increase in the load coming to bear on the cranioplasty implant, which amounted to 80 and 50 %, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The fragility of custom-made PHA cranioplasty implants increases if the surgeon fails to achieve a precise design and validation, and/or an accurate surgical procedure. Nevertheless, careful attention during these phases helps to maintain the strength of the implant, given the more favorable mechanical conditions, without interfering with its biomimetic capacity.

The efficacy of custom-made porous hydroxyapatite prostheses for cranioplasty: evaluation of postmarketing data on 2697 patients.

PURPOSE: Cranioplasty is a surgical intervention aimed at reestablishing the integrity of skull defects. Autologous bone is still considered the treatment of choice for cranioplasty. The aims of this study were to characterize and evaluate the efficacy of porous hydroxyapatite (HA) to fill skull defects based on its biomimetic characteristics. METHODS: The authors analyzed the postmarketing data of all patients treated with custom-made porous HA prostheses (CustomBone Service). Characterization data in terms of physicochemical analysis and mechanical performance of the porous HA prostheses were also reported. RESULTS: The low incidence of adverse events (5.72%) due to the use of HA porous custom-made prostheses for cranioplasty is related to the biomimetic performance of the prostheses. The composition and morphology of the porosity enable it to be a useful biomimetic prosthesis for the reconstruction of large and complex skull defects, also able to promote osteointegration. CONCLUSIONS: These collected and analyzed data demonstrate that porous HA is a suitable material to produce custom-made prostheses to repair craniolacunia. It is a biomimetic implant well-tolerated in both adult and pediatric patients and has been shown to be an effective and good alternative for cranial reconstruction.

Enhancing dermal and bone regeneration in calvarial defect surgery.

INTRODUCTION: To optimize the functional and esthetic result of cranioplasty, it is necessary to choose appropriate materials and take steps to preserve and support tissue vitality. As far as materials are concerned, custom-made porous hydroxyapatite implants are biomimetic, and therefore, provide good biological interaction and biointegration. However, before it is fully integrated, this material has relatively low mechanical resistance. Therefore, to reduce the risk of postoperative implant fracture, it would be desirable to accelerate regeneration of the tissues around and within the graft. OBJECTIVES: The objective was to determine whether integrating growth-factor-rich platelet gel or supportive dermal matrix into hydroxyapatite implant cranioplasty can accelerate bone remodeling and promote soft tissue regeneration, respectively. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The investigation was performed on cranioplasty patients fitted with hydroxyapatite cranial implants between 2004 and 2010. In 7 patients, platelet gel was applied to the bone/prosthesis interface during surgery, and in a further 5 patients, characterized by thin, hypotrophic skin coverage of the cranial lacuna, a sheet of dermal matrix was applied between the prosthesis and the overlying soft tissue. In several of the former groups, platelet gel mixed with hydroxyapatite granules was used to fill small gaps between the skull and the implant. To confirm osteointegration, cranial computed tomography (CT) scans were taken at 3-6 month intervals for 1-year, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was used to confirm dermal integrity. RESULTS: Clinical examination performed a few weeks after surgery revealed good dermal regeneration, with thicker, healthier skin, apparently with a better blood supply, which was confirmed by MRI at 3-6 months. Furthermore, at 3-6 months, CT showed good biomimetism of the porous hydroxyapatite scaffold. Locations at which platelet gel and hydroxyapatite granules were used to fill gaps between the implant and skull appeared to show more rapid integration of the implant than untreated areas. Results were stable at 1-year and remain so to date in cases where follow-up is still ongoing. CONCLUSIONS: Bone remodeling time could be reduced by platelet gel application during cranioplasty with porous hydroxyapatite implants. Likewise, layering dermal matrix over such implants appears to promote dermal tissue regeneration and the oshtemo mimetic process. Both of these strategies may, therefore, reduce the likelihood of postsurgical fracture by promoting mechanical resistance.

Use of "custom made" porous hydroxyapatite implants for cranioplasty: postoperative analysis of complications in 1549 patients.

BACKGROUND: Cranioplasty is a surgical intervention aimed at reestablishing the integrity of skull defects, and should be considered the conclusion of a surgical act that began with bone flap removal. Autologous bone is still considered the treatment of choice for cranioplasty. An alternative choice is bioceramic porous hydroxyapatite (HA) as it is one of the materials that meets and comes closest to the biomimetic characteristics of bone. METHODS: The authors analyzed the clinical charts, compiled by the neurosurgeon, of all patients treated with custom-made porous HA devices (Custom Bone Service Fin-Ceramica, Faenza) from which epidemiological and pathological data as well as material-related complications were extrapolated. RESULTS: From November 1997 to December 2010, 1549 patients underwent cranioplasty with the implantation of 1608 custom-made porous HA devices. HA was used in 53.8% of patients for decompressive craniectomy after trauma or intracranial hemorrhage, while the remaining cases were for treated for comminuted fracture, cutaneous or osseous resection, cranial malformation, autologous bone reabsorption or infection or rejection of previously implanted material. The incidence of adverse events in patients treated for cranioplasty, as first line treatment was 4.78% (56 events/1171 patients), and 5.02%, (19 events/378 patients) at second line. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrates that HA is a safe and effective material, is well tolerated in both adult and pediatric patients, and meets the requirements necessary to repair craniolacunia.

Delayed Positivization of Cerebral Angiography in Reversible Cerebral Vasoconstriction Syndrome (RCVS) Presenting with Recurrent Subarachnoid Haemorrhage.

Benign angiopathy of the central nervous system is a clinical syndrome with evidence of reversible cerebral vasoconstriction (RCVS). Haemorrhagic stroke, either subarachnoid or intracerebral is an unusual presentation of RCVS. We describe a case of RCVS presenting with a subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH), with rebleeding and onset of hydrocephalus during the first week, and, notably, delayed evidence of typical angiographic features after two negative prior exams. Normalization of the angiographic vasculitic-like lesions was documented at month +6. Repeated cerebral angiograms are mandatory to exclude this kind of disease, and the uncommon presentation of this case reinforces this concept.