The phytochelatin synthase gene in date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.): Phylogeny, evolution and expression.

We studied date palm phytochelatin synthase type I (PdPCS1), which catalyzes the cytosolic synthesis of phytochelatins (PCs), a heavy metal binding protein, in plant cells. The gene encoding PdPCS1 (Pdpcs) consists of 8 exons and 7 introns and encodes a protein of 528 amino acids. PCs gene history was studied using Notung phylogeny. During evolution, gene loss from several lineages was predicted including Proteobacteria, Bilateria and Brassicaceae. In addition, eleven gene duplication events appeared toward interior nodes of the reconciled tree and four gene duplication events appeared toward the external nodes. These latter sequences belong to species with a second copy of PCs suggesting that this gene evolved through subfunctionalization. Pdpcs1 gene expression was measured in seedling hypocotyls exposed to Cd, Cu and Cr using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). A Pdpcs1 overexpression was evidenced in P. dactylifera seedlings exposed to metals suggesting that 1-the Pdpcs1 gene is functional, 2-there is an implication of the enzyme in metal detoxification mechanisms. Additionally, the structure of PdPCS1 was predicted using its homologue from Nostoc (cyanobacterium, NsPCS) as a template in Discovery studio and PyMol software. These analyses allowed us to identify the phytochelatin synthase type I enzyme in date palm (PdPCS1) via recognition of key consensus amino acids involved in the catalytic mechanism, and to propose a hypothetical binding and catalytic site for an additional substrate binding cavity.

Morphological, Physiological and Biochemical Impact of Ink Industry Effluent on Germination of Maize (Zea mays), Barley (Hordeum vulgare) and Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor).

The present study focuses on effects of untreated and treated ink industry wastewater on germination of maize, barley and sorghum. Wastewater had a high chemical oxygen demand (COD) and metal content compared to treated effluent. Germination decreased with increasing COD concentration. Speed of germination also followed the same trend, except for maize seeds exposed to untreated effluent (E), which germinated slightly faster than controls. These alterations of seedling development were mirrored by changes in soluble protein content. E exerted a positive effect on soluble protein content and maximum levels occurred after 10 days with treated effluent using coagulation/flocculation (TEc/f) process and treated effluent using combined process (coagulation/flocculation/biosorption) (TEc/f/b). Likewise, activity of α-amylase was influenced by effluent composition. Its expression depended on the species, exposure time and applied treatment. Nevertheless, current results indicated TEc/f/b had no observable toxic effects on germination and could be a beneficial alternative resource to irrigation water.

Physiological responses of fenugreek seedlings and plants treated with cadmium.

The bioaccumulation efficiency of cadmium (Cd) by fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) was examined using different concentrations of CdCl2. The germination rate was similar to control except at 10 mM Cd. However, early seedling growth was quite sensitive to the metal from the lowest Cd level. Accordingly, amylase activity was reduced substantially on treatment of seeds with 0.5, 1, and 10 mM Cd. Cadmium also affected various other plant growth parameters. Its accumulation was markedly lower in shoots as compared to roots, reducing root biomass by almost 50 %. Plants treated with 1 and 5 mM Cd presented chlorosis due to a significant reduction in chlorophyll b especially. Furthermore, at Cd concentrations greater than 0.1 mM, plants showed several signs of oxidative stress; an enhancement in root hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) level and in shoot malondialdehyde (MDA) content was observed. Conversely, antioxidant enzyme activities (superoxide dismutase (SOD), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), and catalase (CAT)) increased in various plant parts. Likewise, total phenolic and flavonoid contents reached their highest values in the 0.5 mM Cd treatment, consistent with their roles in quenching low concentrations of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Consequently, maintaining oxidant and antioxidant balance may permit fenugreek to hyperaccumulate Cd and allow it to be employed in extremely Cd polluted soils for detoxification purposes.