Cytochrome b5 diversity in green lineages preceded the evolution of syringyl lignin biosynthesis.

Lignin production marked a milestone in vascular plant evolution, and the emergence of syringyl (S)-lignin is lineage-specific. S-lignin biosynthesis in angiosperms, mediated by ferulate 5-hydroxylase (F5H, CYP84A1), has been considered a recent evolutionary event. F5H uniquely requires the cytochrome b5 protein CB5D as an obligatory redox partner for catalysis. However, it remains unclear how CB5D functionality originated and whether it co-evolved with F5H. We reveal here the ancient evolution of CB5D-type function supporting F5H-catalyzed S-lignin biosynthesis. CB5D emerged in charophyte algae, the closest relatives of land plants, and is conserved and proliferated in embryophytes, especially in angiosperms, suggesting functional diversification of the CB5 family before terrestrialization. A sequence motif containing acidic amino residues in helix 5 of the CB5 heme-binding domain contributes to the retention of CB5D function in land plants but not in algae. Notably, CB5s in the S-lignin-producing lycophyte Selaginella lack these residues, resulting in no CB5D-type function. An independently evolved S-lignin biosynthetic F5H (CYP788A1) in Selaginella relies on NADPH-dependent cytochrome P450 reductase as sole redox partner, distinct from angiosperms. These results suggest that angiosperm F5Hs co-opted the ancient CB5D, forming a modern cytochrome P450 monooxygenase system for aromatic ring meta-hydroxylation, enabling the re-emergence of S-lignin biosynthesis in angiosperms.

LncRNA LINC01703 promotes the proliferation, migration, and invasion of colorectal cancer by activating PI3K/AKT pathway.

The role of LINC01703 in cancers, especially in colorectal cancer (CRC), is still largely unclear. Bioinformatics prediction, real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), 3-(4,5)-dimethylthiahiazo (-z-y1)-3,5-di-phenytetrazoliumromide (MTT) assay, colony formation assay, Transwell assays, in vivo animal experiments, IF, luciferase reporter assay, and Western blot were carried out for the exploration of the potential involvement and underlying molecular mechanisms of LINC01703 in CRC cells. The results showed that LINC01703 appeared upregulated in CRC and was linked to poor prognosis. LINC01703 acted as an oncogene in both in vitro and in vivo CRC cell environments. LINC01703 activated the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway by mediating the miR-205-5p/E2F1 axis in CRC. In summary, LINC01703 possesses an oncogenic function and can be a possible biomarker or target to treat CRC.

Tissue-preferential recruitment of electron transfer chains for cytochrome P450-catalyzed phenolic biosynthesis.

Cytochrome P450 system consists of P450 monooxygenase and redox pattern(s). While the importance of monooxygenases in plant metabolism is well documented, the metabolic roles of the related redox components have been largely overlooked. Here, we show that distinct electron transfer chains are recruited in phenylpropanoid-monolignol P450 systems to support the synthesis and distribution of different classes of phenolics in different plant tissues. While Arabidopsis cinnamate 4-hydroxylase adopts conventional NADPH-cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (CPR) electron transfer chain for its para-hydroxylation reaction, ferulate 5-hydroxylase uses both NADPH-CPR-cytochrome b5 (CB5) and NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase-CB5 chains to support benzene ring 5-hydroxylation, in which the former route is primarily recruited in the stem for syringyl lignin synthesis, while the latter dominates in the syntheses of 5-hydroxylated phenolics in seeds and seed coat suberin. Our study unveils an additional layer of complexity and versatility of P450 system that the plants evolved for diversifying phenolic repertoires.

Biocatalytic system for comparatively assessing the functional association of monolignol cytochrome P450 monooxygenases with their redox partners.

Lignin is a complex heterogenous polymer derived from oxidative radical polymerization of three monolignols, i.e., p-coumaryl alcohol, coniferyl alcohol and sinapyl alcohol. These lignin monomeric precursors structurally differ in their methoxy groups of the benzene rings. In phenylpropanoid-monolignol biosynthetic pathway, the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-resident cytochrome P450 monooxygenases, cinnamate 4-hydroxylase, coumaroyl ester 3'-hydroxylase and ferulate 5-hydroxylase, establish the key structural characteristics of monolignols. The catalysis of cytochrome P450 monooxygenase requires reducing power, which is supplied by the ER electron transfer chains, composed of cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (CPR), cytochrome b5 reductase (CBR) and/or cytochrome b5 protein (CB5), from cofactor NADPH or NADH. While NADPH-dependent CPR serves as the typical electron donor for most P450 enzymes, in some cases, the CBR-CB5 or CPR-CB5 electron transfer system also transfers electrons to the terminal P450 enzymes. There are tremendous studies focusing on the discovery and characterization of cytochrome P450 monooxygenases. However, very limited attention has been paid to the versatility and the roles of electron transfer components in the P450 catalytic system. Due to the membrane-residence property of both P450 enzymes and electron transfer components, it is challenging to establish an effective experimental system to evaluate the functional association of P450s with their redox partners. This chapter describes a yeast cell biocatalytic system and the related experimental procedures for comparatively assessing the functional relationship of monolignol biosynthetic P450 enzymes and different redox partners in their catalysis.

BBX11 promotes red light-mediated photomorphogenic development by modulating phyB-PIF4 signaling.

phytochrome B (phyB) acts as the red light photoreceptor and negatively regulates the growth-promoting factor PHYTOCHROME INTERACTING 4 (PIF4) through a direct physical interaction, which in turn changes the expression of a large number of genes. phyB-PIF4 module regulates a variety of biological and developmental processes in plants. In this study, we demonstrate that B-BOX PROTEIN 11 (BBX11) physically interacts with both phyB and PIF4. BBX11 negatively regulates PIF4 accumulation as well as its biochemical activity, consequently leading to the repression of PIF4-controlled genes' expression and promotion of photomorphogenesis in the prolonged red light. This study reveals a regulatory mechanism that mediates red light signal transduction and sheds a light on phyB-PIF4 module in promoting red light-dependent photomorphognenesis. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s42994-021-00037-2.

Arabidopsis SnRK1 negatively regulates phenylpropanoid metabolism via Kelch domain-containing F-box proteins.

Phenylpropanoid metabolism represents a substantial metabolic sink for photosynthetically fixed carbon. The evolutionarily conserved Sucrose Non-Fermenting Related Kinase 1 (SnRK1) is a major metabolic sensor that reprograms metabolism upon carbon deprivation. However, it is not clear if and how the SnRK1-mediated sugar signaling pathway controls phenylpropanoid metabolism. Here, we show that Arabidopsis SnRK1 negatively regulates phenylpropanoid biosynthesis via a group of Kelch domain-containing F-box (KFB) proteins that are responsible for the ubiquitination and degradation of phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL). Downregulation of AtSnRK1 significantly promoted the accumulation of soluble phenolics and lignin polymers and drastically increased PAL cellular accumulation but only slightly altered its transcription level. Co-expression of SnRK1α with PAL in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves resulted in the severe attenuation of the latter's protein level, but protein interaction assays suggested PAL is not a direct substrate of SnRK1. Furthermore, up or downregulation of AtSnRK1 positively affected KFBPALs gene expression, and energy starvation upregulated KFBPAL expression, which partially depends on AtSnRK1. Collectively, our study reveals that SnRK1 negatively regulates phenylpropanoid biosynthesis, and KFBPALs act as regulatory components of the SnRK1 signaling network, transcriptionally regulated by SnRK1 and subsequently mediate proteasomal degradation of PAL in response to the cellular carbon availability.

A Positive Feedback Loop of BBX11-BBX21-HY5 Promotes Photomorphogenic Development in Arabidopsis.

Light is the most important environmental factor affecting many aspects of plant development. In this study, we report that B-box protein 11 (BBX11) acts as a positive regulator of red light signaling. BBX11 loss-of-function mutant seedlings display significantly elongated hypocotyls under conditions of both red light and long day, whereas BBX11 overexpression causes markedly shortened hypocotyls under various light states. BBX11 binds to the HY5 promoter to activate its transcription, while both BBX21 and HY5 associate with the promoter of BBX11 to positively regulate its expression. Taken together, our results reveal positive feedback regulation of photomorphogenesis consisting of BBX11, BBX21, and HY5, thus substantiating a transcriptional regulatory mechanism in the response of plants to light during normal development.

COLD-REGULATED GENE27 Integrates Signals from Light and the Circadian Clock to Promote Hypocotyl Growth in Arabidopsis.

Light and the circadian clock are two essential external and internal cues affecting seedling development. COLD-REGULATED GENE27 (COR27), which is regulated by cold temperatures and light signals, functions as a key regulator of the circadian clock. Here, we report that COR27 acts as a negative regulator of light signaling. COR27 physically interacts with the CONSTITUTIVELY PHOTOMORPHOGENIC1 (COP1)-SUPPRESSOR OF PHYTOCHROME A1 (SPA1) E3 ubiquitin ligase complex and undergoes COP1-mediated degradation via the 26S proteasome system in the dark. cor27 mutant seedlings exhibit shorter hypocotyls, while transgenic lines overexpressing COR27 show elongated hypocotyls in the light. In addition, light induces the accumulation of COR27. On one hand, accumulated COR27 interacts with ELONGATED HYPOCOTYL5 (HY5) to repress HY5 DNA binding activity. On the other hand, COR27 associates with the chromatin at the PHYTOCHROME INTERACTING FACTOR4 (PIF4) promoter region and upregulates PIF4 expression in a circadian clock-dependent manner. Together, our findings reveal a mechanistic framework whereby COR27 represses photomorphogenesis in the light and provide insights toward how light and the circadian clock synergistically control hypocotyl growth.

UDP-Api/UDP-Xyl synthases affect plant development by controlling the content of UDP-Api to regulate the RG-II-borate complex.

Rhamnogalacturonan-II (RG-II) is structurally the most complex glycan in higher plants, containing 13 different sugars and 21 distinct glycosidic linkages. Two monomeric RG-II molecules can form an RG-II-borate diester dimer through the two apiosyl (Api) residues of side chain A to regulate cross-linking of pectin in the cell wall. But the relationship of Api biosynthesis and RG-II dimer is still unclear. In this study we investigated the two homologous UDP-D-apiose/UDP-D-xylose synthases (AXSs) in Arabidopsis thaliana that synthesize UDP-D-apiose (UDP-Api). Both AXSs are ubiquitously expressed, while AXS2 has higher overall expression than AXS1 in the tissues analyzed. The homozygous axs double mutant is lethal, while heterozygous axs1/+ axs2 and axs1 axs2/+ mutants display intermediate phenotypes. The axs1/+ axs2 mutant plants are unable to set seed and die. By contrast, the axs1 axs2/+ mutant plants exhibit loss of shoot and root apical dominance. UDP-Api content in axs1 axs2/+ mutants is decreased by 83%. The cell wall of axs1 axs2/+ mutant plants is thicker and contains less RG-II-borate complex than wild-type Col-0 plants. Taken together, these results provide direct evidence of the importance of AXSs for UDP-Api and RG-II-borate complex formation in plant growth and development.

The class II KNOX transcription factors KNAT3 and KNAT7 synergistically regulate monolignol biosynthesis in Arabidopsis.

The function of the transcription factor KNOTTED ARABIDOPSIS THALIANA7 (KNAT7) is still unclear since it appears to be either a negative or a positive regulator for secondary cell wall deposition with its loss-of-function mutant displaying thicker interfascicular and xylary fiber cell walls but thinner vessel cell walls in inflorescence stems. To explore the exact function of KNAT7, class II KNOTTED1-LIKE HOMEOBOX (KNOX II) genes in Arabidopsis including KNAT3, KNAT4, and KNAT5 were studied together. By chimeric repressor technology, we found that both KNAT3 and KNAT7 repressors exhibited a similar dwarf phenotype. Both KNAT3 and KNAT7 genes were expressed in the inflorescence stems and the knat3 knat7 double mutant exhibited a dwarf phenotype similar to the repressor lines. A stem cross-section of knat3 knat7 displayed an enhanced irregular xylem phenotype as compared with the single mutants, and its cell wall thickness in xylem vessels and interfascicular fibers was significantly reduced. Analysis of cell wall chemical composition revealed that syringyl lignin was significantly decreased while guaiacyl lignin was increased in the knat3 knat7 double mutant. Coincidently, the knat3 knat7 transcriptome showed that most lignin pathway genes were activated, whereas the syringyl lignin-related gene Ferulate 5-Hydroxylase (F5H) was down-regulated. Protein interaction analysis revealed that KNAT3 and KNAT7 can form a heterodimer, and KNAT3, but not KNAT7, can interact with the key secondary cell wall formation transcription factors NST1/2, which suggests that the KNAT3-NST1/2 heterodimer complex regulates F5H to promote syringyl lignin synthesis. These results indicate that KNAT3 and KNAT7 synergistically work together to promote secondary cell wall biosynthesis.

BBX4, a phyB-interacting and modulated regulator, directly interacts with PIF3 to fine tune red light-mediated photomorphogenesis.

Phytochrome B (phyB) absorbs red light signals and subsequently initiates a set of molecular events in plant cells to promote photomorphogenesis. Here we show that phyB directly interacts with B-BOX CONTAINING PROTEIN 4 (BBX4), a positive regulator of red light signaling, and positively controls its abundance in red light. BBX4 associates with PHYTOCHROME INTERACTING FACTOR 3 (PIF3) and represses PIF3 transcriptional activation activity and PIF3-controlled gene expression. The degradation of BBX4 in darkness is dependent on CONSTITUTIVELY PHOTOMORPHOGENIC 1 (COP1) and the 26S proteasome system. Collectively, BBX4 acts as a key component of the phyB-PIF3-mediated signaling module and fine tunes the red light action. phyB promotes the accumulation of BBX4, which in turn serves to repress PIF3 action through direct physical interaction to promote photomorphogenic development in red light.

Characterization of hemicelluloses in Phyllostachys edulis (moso bamboo) culm during xylogenesis.

Hemicelluloses are ß-(1→4)-linked backbone polysaccharides found in plant cell walls that include xyloglucans, xylans, mannans and glucomannans, and play important roles in plant tissue configuration. In this study, hemicelluloses were isolated from the apical, middle and basal segments of 6 m Phyllostachys edulis culm using KOH and DMSO extraction procedures, respectively. Chemical composition and structural characterization of hemicellulosic fractions were comparatively investigated by a combination of HPLC, GPC, FT-IR, 1H-, 13C-, HSQC NMR and TGA techniques. Our results show that the main chain of hemicellulose in P. edulis consists of glucuronoarabinoxylans (GAXs) with backbone 1, 4-ß-d-Xyl, and side chain arabinose, glucuronic acid and acetylation. Hemicellulose content and molecular weight increased with culm xylogenesis in P. edulis. Our results provide new insights on the dynamics of hemicellulose structure in culm xylogenesis in P. edulis.

B-Box Containing Proteins BBX30 and BBX31, Acting Downstream of HY5, Negatively Regulate Photomorphogenesis in Arabidopsis.

Light-mediated seedling development is coordinately controlled by a variety of key regulators. Here, we identified two B-box (BBX)-containing proteins, BBX30 and BBX31, as repressors of photomorphogenesis. ELONGATED HYPOCOTYL5, a central regulator of light signaling, directly binds to the G-box cis-element present in the promoters of BBX30 and BBX31 and negatively controls their transcription levels in the light. Seedlings with mutations in BBX30 or BBX31 are hypersensitive to light, whereas the overexpression of BBX30 or BBX31 leads to hypo-photomorphogenic growth in the light. Furthermore, transgenic and phenotypic analysis revealed that the B-box domain of BBX30 or BBX31 is essential for their respective functioning in the regulation of photomorphogenic development in plants. In conclusion, BBX30 and BBX31 act as key negative regulators of light signaling, and their transcription is repressed by ELONGATED HYPOCOTYL5 through directly associating with their promoters.

COP1 SUPPRESSOR 4 promotes seedling photomorphogenesis by repressing CCA1 and PIF4 expression in Arabidopsis.

CONSTITUTIVELY PHOTOMORPHOGENIC 1 (COP1) and DE-ETIOLATED 1 (DET1) are founding components of two central repressor complexes of photomorphogenesis that trigger the degradation of a larger number of photomorphogenic-promoting factors in darkness. Here, we identify COP1 SUPPRESSOR 4 (CSU4) as a genetic suppressor of the cop1-6 mutation. Mutations in CSU4 largely rescued the constitutively photomorphogenic phenotype of cop1-6 and det1-1 in darkness. Loss of CSU4 function resulted in significantly longer hypocotyl in the light. Further biochemical studies revealed that CSU4 physically interacts with CIRCADIAN CLOCK-ASSOCIATED 1 (CCA1) and negatively regulates its transcriptional repression activity toward its targets. CSU4 represses the expression of CCA1 in the early morning and of PHYTOCHROME INTERACTING FACTOR 4 (PIF4) in the early evening. Our study suggests that CSU4 acts as a negative regulator of CCA1 via physically associating with CCA1, which in turn, likely serves to repress expression of CCA1 and PIF4 to promote photomorphogenesis.

Transcriptome analysis provides insights into xylogenesis formation in Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis) shoot.

Maturation-related changes in cell wall composition and the molecular mechanisms underlying cell wall changes were investigated from the apical, middle and basal segments in moso bamboo shoot (MBS). With maturation extent from apical to basal regions in MBS, lignin and cellulose content increased, whereas heteroxylan exhibited a decreasing trend. Activities of phenylalanine amonnialyase (PAL), cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase (CAD) and cinnamate-4-hydroxylase (C4H), which are involved in lignin biosynthesis, increased rapidly from the apex to the base sections. The comparative transcriptomic analysis was carried out to identify some key genes involved in secondary cell walls (SCW) formation underlying the cell wall compositions changes including 63, 8, 18, and 31 functional unigenes encoding biosynthesis of lignin, cellulose, xylan and NAC-MYB-based transcription factors, respectively. Genes related to secondary cell wall formation and lignin biosynthesis had higher expression levels in the middle and basal segments compared to those in the apical segments. Furthermore, the expression profile of PePAL gene showed positive relationships with cellulose-related gene PeCESA4, xylan-related genes PeIRX9 and PeIRX10. Our results indicated that lignification occurred in the more mature middle and basal segments in MBS at harvest while lignification of MBS were correlated with higher expression levels of PeCESA4, PeIRX9 and PeIRX10 genes.

KNAT7 positively regulates xylan biosynthesis by directly activating IRX9 expression in Arabidopsis.

Xylan is the major plant hemicellulosic polysaccharide in the secondary cell wall. The transcription factor KNOTTED-LIKE HOMEOBOX OF ARABIDOPSIS THALIANA 7 (KNAT7) regulates secondary cell wall biosynthesis, but its exact role in regulating xylan biosynthesis remains unclear. Using transactivation analyses, we demonstrate that KNAT7 activates the promoters of the xylan biosynthetic genes, IRREGULAR XYLEM 9 (IRX9), IRX10, IRREGULAR XYLEM 14-LIKE (IRX14L), and FRAGILE FIBER 8 (FRA8). The knat7 T-DNA insertion mutants have thinner vessel element walls and xylary fibers, and thicker interfascicular fiber walls in inflorescence stems, relative to wild-type (WT). KNAT7 overexpression plants exhibited opposite effects. Glycosyl linkage and sugar composition analyses revealed lower xylan levels in knat7 inflorescence stems, relative to WT; a finding supported by labeling of inflorescence walls with xylan-specific antibodies. The knat7 loss-of-function mutants had lower transcript levels of the xylan biosynthetic genes IRX9, IRX10, and FRA8, whereas KNAT7 overexpression plants had higher mRNA levels for IRX9, IRX10, IRX14L, and FRA8. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays indicated that KNAT7 binds to the IRX9 promoter. These results support the hypothesis that KNAT7 positively regulates xylan biosynthesis.

Three UDP-xylose transporters participate in xylan biosynthesis by conveying cytosolic UDP-xylose into the Golgi lumen in Arabidopsis.

UDP-xylose (UDP-Xyl) is synthesized by UDP-glucuronic acid decarboxylases, also termed UDP-Xyl synthases (UXSs). The Arabidopsis genome encodes six UXSs, which fall into two groups based upon their subcellular location: the Golgi lumen and the cytosol. The latter group appears to play an important role in xylan biosynthesis. Cytosolic UDP-Xyl is transported into the Golgi lumen by three UDP-Xyl transporters (UXT1, 2, and 3). However, while single mutants affected in the UDP-Xyl transporter 1 (UXT1) showed a substantial reduction in cell wall xylose content, a double mutant affected in UXT2 and UXT3 had no obvious effect on cell wall xylose deposition. This prompted us to further investigate redundancy among the members of the UXT family. Multiple uxt mutants were generated, including a triple mutant, which exhibited collapsed vessels and reduced cell wall thickness in interfascicular fiber cells. Monosaccharide composition, molecular weight, nuclear magnetic resonance, and immunolabeling studies demonstrated that both xylan biosynthesis (content) and fine structure were significantly affected in the uxt triple mutant, leading to phenotypes resembling those of the irx mutants. Pollination was also impaired in the uxt triple mutant, likely due to reduced filament growth and anther dehiscence caused by alterations in the composition of the cell walls. Moreover, analysis of the nucleotide sugar composition of the uxt mutants indicated that nucleotide sugar interconversion is influenced by the cytosolic UDP-Xyl pool within the cell. Taken together, our results underpin the physiological roles of the UXT family in xylan biosynthesis and provide novel insights into the nucleotide sugar metabolism and trafficking in plants.

Effective extraction of Arabidopsis adherent seed mucilage by ultrasonic treatment.

The Arabidopsis seed coat is composed of two layers of mucilage, a water-soluble non-adherent outer layer and an adherent inner layer. The non-adherent mucilage can easily be extracted by gentle shaking. However, adherent mucilage is extremely difficult to dissociate from the seed coat. Despite various treatments to extract the adherent mucilage, including EDTA, ammonium oxalate, dilute alkali or acid washes, most of it remains on the seed coat. Here, we show for the first time the extraction of almost all of the adherent mucilage from the Arabidopsis seed coat. Our results demonstrate that ultrasonic treatment was able to extract the adherent mucilage effectively within 20 seconds. Adherent mucilage, like non-adherent mucilage, is mainly composed of rhamnogalacturonan I (RG I). The crystalline cellulose content in adherent mucilage was measured as 3.7 mg g-1 of dry seed. Compared with non-adherent mucilage, the adherent mucilage exhibits relatively stable levels of sugar under various environmental conditions. In all cases, adherent mucilage showed higher levels of sugar than non-adherent mucilage. The cell wall remnant could associate with the adherent mucilage, which could prevent the extraction of the adherent mucilage. Our results show that ultrasonic treatment is an effective method for the quick extraction of Arabidopsis adherent mucilage with little effort.

Characterization of hemicelluloses from Neolamarckia cadamba (Rubiaceae) during xylogenesis.

In this study, hemicelluloses were isolated from the apical, middle and basal segments of N. cadamba using a 2N KOH extraction procedure. Chemical composition and structural characterization of the three hemicellulosic fractions obtained were comparatively investigated by a combination of HPLC, GPC, FTIR, 1H,13C, HSQC NMR and TGA techniques. According to the sugar analysis and spectral results, (4-O-methyl) glucuronoxylan was the primary hemicellulose identified in the samples with trace levels of mannan also present. All of the three samples showed spherical polymers in 0.005M sodium phosphate solution (containing 0.02N NaCl). Xylan in the middle and basal segment stems had higher molecular weights. Our findings show that during xylogenesis in N. cadamba, changes are observed in xylan content and molecular weight.