Gut symbiont-derived sphingosine modulates vector competence in Aedes mosquitoes.

The main vectors of Zika virus (ZIKV) and dengue virus (DENV) are Aedes aegypti and Ae. albopictus, with Ae. aegypti being more competent. However, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Here, we find Ae. albopictus shows comparable vector competence to ZIKV/DENV with Ae. aegypti by blood-feeding after antibiotic treatment or intrathoracic injection. This suggests that midgut microbiota can influence vector competence. Enterobacter hormaechei_B17 (Eh_B17) is isolated from field-collected Ae. albopictus and conferred resistance to ZIKV/DENV infection in Ae. aegypti after gut-transplantation. Sphingosine, a metabolite secreted by Eh_B17, effectively suppresses ZIKV infection in both Ae. aegypti and cell cultures by blocking viral entry during the fusion step, with an IC50 of approximately 10 µM. A field survey reveals that Eh_B17 preferentially colonizes Ae. albopictus compared to Ae. aegypti. And field Ae. albopictus positive for Eh_B17 are more resistant to ZIKV infection. These findings underscore the potential of gut symbiotic bacteria, such as Eh_B17, to modulate the arbovirus vector competence of Aedes mosquitoes. As a natural antiviral agent, Eh_B17 holds promise as a potential candidate for blocking ZIKV/DENV transmission.

[Evolution of Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Atmospheric Precipitation and Its Significant Impacts on the Environment in Beijing].

Atmospheric precipitation samples were collected in 2018, 2019, and 2021 in Beijing to study the concentrations and changes of the main metal elements and water-soluble ions； the wet deposition fluxes of heavy metals, water-soluble ions, dissolved inorganic nitrogen, and sulfur in the atmospheric precipitation and their impacts on the ecological environment； and the scavenging mechanisms of the typical precipitation to atmospheric pollutants during the study period. The results showed that the precipitation in Beijing during the study period was mostly neutral or alkaline, and the frequency of acid rain occurrence was very low, only accounting for 3.06%. The total concentrations of major metal elements in 2018, 2019, and 2021 were （4 787.46 ±4 704.31）, （7 663.07 ±8 395.05）, and （2 629.13 ±2 369.51） µg·L-1, respectively. The total equivalent concentrations of ions in 2018, 2019, and 2021 were （851.68 ±649.16）, （973.98 ±850.94）, and （644.31 ±531.16） µeq·L-1, respectively. The interannual changes in major metal elements and ions followed the order of 2019 > 2018 > 2021. The seasonal average total concentrations of major metal elements in spring, summer, autumn, and winter were （9 624.25 ±7 327.92）, （4 088.67 ±5 710.14）, （3 357.68 ±3 995.64）, and （6 203.19 ±3 857.43） µg·L-1, respectively, and the seasonal average total equivalent concentrations of ions in spring, summer, autumn, and winter were （1 014.71 ±512.21）, （729.83 ±589.90）, （724.35 ±681.40）, and （1 014.03 ±359.67） µeq·L-1, respectively, all presenting the order of spring > winter > summer > autumn. NO3- and SO42- were the main acid-causing ions in precipitation, whereas NH4+ and Ca2+ were the main acid-neutralizing ions. The wet deposition fluxes of the heavy metal Cd were very low [（0.05 ±0.01） mg·ï¼ˆm2·a）-1], only accounting for （0.13 ±0.04）% of the total wet deposition fluxes of main metal elements； however, its soil safety years were 291 years, significantly lower than those of other heavy metals, displaying that its ecological risk was relatively the highest. The total wet precipitation flux of water-soluble ions NH4+, Ca2+, NO3-, and SO42- accounted for （85.72 ±2.18）% of the wet precipitation flux of total ions, suggesting that their comprehensive impact on the ecological environment might have been higher. DIN wet deposition flux was mainly characterized by NH4+-N, which had a positive impact on the ecological environment in summer. SO42--S wet deposition flux was higher in summer, so its positive impact on the ecological environment was also greater. The scavenging effects of atmospheric precipitations to pollutants from the air were impacted by various factors, and the synergism effects of these factors could directly influence the scavenging mechanisms of precipitation to pollutants.

Comparative Analysis of Bisexual and Parthenogenetic Populations in Haemaphysalis Longicornis.

Haemaphysalis longicornis, a three-host tick with a wide host range, is widely distributed in different countries and regions. It stands out among ticks due to its unique feature of having both parthenogenetic and bisexual populations. Despite their morphological resemblance, the characteristics of the parthenogenetic population have been overlooked. In this comprehensive study, we systematically compared the similarities and differences between these two populations. Our investigation revealed that the parthenogenetic H. longicornis, widely distributed in China, was found in ten provinces, surpassing the previously reported distribution. Notably, individuals from the parthenogenetic population exhibited a prolonged blood-feeding duration during the larval and nymph stages compared to their bisexual counterparts. Additionally, the life cycle of the parthenogenetic population was observed to be longer. A flow cytometry analysis indicated a DNA content ratio of approximately 2:3 between the bisexual and parthenogenetic populations. A phylogenetic analysis using whole mitochondrial genome sequences resulted in the separation of the phylogenetic tree into two distinct branches. A molecular analysis unveiled a consistent single T-base deletion at nucleotide 8497 in the parthenogenetic population compared to the bisexual population. Both populations displayed high viral infection capability and significant resistance to ivermectin. Intriguingly, despite these differences, the parthenogenetic population exhibited a similar life cycle to the bisexual population, retaining the ability to transmit pathogens such as Severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus (SFTSV) and Heartland Virus (HRTV). These findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the distinct characteristics and similarities between different populations of H. longicornis, laying the foundation for future research in this field.

High diversity, close genetic relatedness, and favorable living conditions benefit species co-occurrence of gut microbiota in Brandt's vole.

Introduction: Revealing factors and mechanisms in determining species co-existence are crucial to community ecology, but studies using gut microbiota data are still lacking. Methods: Using gut microbiota data of 556 Brandt's voles from 37 treatments in eight experiments, we examined the relationship of species co-occurrence of gut microbiota in Brandt's voles (Lasiopodomys brandtii) with genetic distance (or genetic relatedness), community diversity, and several environmental variables. Results: We found that the species co-occurrence index (a larger index indicates a higher co-occurrence probability) of gut microbiota in Brandt's voles was negatively associated with the genetic distance between paired ASVs and the number of cohabitating voles in the experimental space (a larger number represents more crowding social stress), but positively with Shannon diversity index, grass diets (representing natural foods), and non-physical contact within an experimental space (representing less stress). Discussion: Our study demonstrated that high diversity, close genetic relatedness, and favorable living conditions would benefit species co-occurrence of gut microbiota in hosts. Our results provide novel insights into factors and mechanisms that shape the community structure and function of gut microbiota and highlight the significance of preserving the biodiversity of gut microbiota.

Multi-Query Vehicle Re-Identification: Viewpoint-Conditioned Network, Unified Dataset and New Metric.

Existing vehicle re-identification methods mainly rely on the single query, which has limited information for vehicle representation and thus significantly hinders the performance of vehicle Re-ID in complicated surveillance networks. In this paper, we propose a more realistic and easily accessible task, called multi-query vehicle Re-ID, which leverages multiple queries to overcome viewpoint limitation of single one. Based on this task, we make three major contributions. First, we design a novel viewpoint-conditioned network (VCNet), which adaptively combines the complementary information from different vehicle viewpoints, for multi-query vehicle Re-ID. Moreover, to deal with the problem of missing vehicle viewpoints, we propose a cross-view feature recovery module which recovers the features of the missing viewpoints by learnt the correlation between the features of available and missing viewpoints. Second, we create a unified benchmark dataset, taken by 6142 cameras from a real-life transportation surveillance system, with comprehensive viewpoints and large number of crossed scenes of each vehicle for multi-query vehicle Re-ID evaluation. Finally, we design a new evaluation metric, called mean cross-scene precision (mCSP), which measures the ability of cross-scene recognition by suppressing the positive samples with similar viewpoints from the same camera. Comprehensive experiments validate the superiority of the proposed method against other methods, as well as the effectiveness of the designed metric in the evaluation of multi-query vehicle Re-ID. The codes and dataset are available at: https://github.com/zhangchaobin001/VCNet.

Recombinant Lactococcus lactis Expressing Human LL-37 Prevents Deaths from Viral Infections in Piglets and Chicken.

Novel antibiotic substitutes are increasingly in demand in the animal husbandry industry. An oral recombinant Lactococcus lactis (L. lactis) expressing human LL-37 (oral LL-37) was developed and its safety and antiviral effectiveness in vivo was tested. In addition to impairing liposome integrity, LL-37 polypeptide from recombinant L. lactis could prevent the host cell infection by a variety of viruses, including recombinant SARS, SARS-CoV-2, Ebola virus, and vesicular stomatitis virus G. Subchronic toxicity studies performed on Sprague-Dawley rats showed that no cumulative toxicity was found during short-term intervention. Oral LL-37 treatment after the onset of fever could reduce mortality in piglets infected with porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Moreover, body weight gain of piglets receiving treatment was progressively restored, and nucleic acid positive rebound was not undetected after discontinuation. Oral LL-37 consistently increased the lifespan of chickens infected with Newcastle viruses. These findings suggested a potential use of recombinantly modified microorganisms in veterinary medicine.

Efficacy and safety of Oral LL-37 against the Omicron BA.5.1.3 variant of SARS-COV-2: A randomized trial.

Recombinant LL-37 Lactococcus lactis (Oral LL-37) was designed to prevent progression of COVID-19 by targeting virus envelope, however, effectiveness and safety of Oral LL-37 in clinical application was unclear. A total of 238 adult inpatients, open-labelled, randomized, placebo-controlled, single-center study was conducted to investigate the primary end points, including negative conversion time (NCT) of SARS-CoV-2 RNA and adverse events (AEs). As early as intervened on 6th day of case confirmed, Oral LL-37 could significantly shorten NCT (LL-37 9.80 ± 2.67 vs. placebo 14.04 ± 5.89, p < 0.01). For Oral LL-37, as early as treated in 6 days, the adjusted hazard ratio (HR) for a primary event of nucleic acid negative outcome was 6.27-fold higher than 7-day-later (HR: 6.276, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 3.631-10.848, p < 0.0001), and the adjusted HR of Oral LL-37 within 6 days is higher than placebo (HR: 2.427 95% CI: 1.239-4.751, p = 0.0097). No severe AEs were observed during hospitalization and follow-up investigation. This study shows that early intervention of Oral LL-37 incredibly reduces NCT implying a potential for clearance of Omicron BA.5.1.3 without evident safety concerns.

ProxyMix: Proxy-based Mixup training with label refinery for source-free domain adaptation.

Due to privacy concerns and data transmission issues, Source-free Unsupervised Domain Adaptation (SFDA) has gained popularity. It exploits pre-trained source models, rather than raw source data for target learning, to transfer knowledge from a labeled source domain to an unlabeled target domain. Existing methods solve this problem typically with additional parameters or noisy pseudo labels, and we propose an effective method named Proxy-based Mixup training with label refinery (ProxyMix) to avoid these drawbacks. To avoid additional parameters and leverages information in the source model, ProxyMix defines classifier weights as class prototypes and creates a class-balanced proxy source domain using nearest neighbors of the prototypes. To improve the reliability of pseudo labels, we further propose the frequency-weighted aggregation strategy to generate soft pseudo labels for unlabeled target data. Our strategy utilizes target features' internal structure, increases weights of low-frequency class samples, and aligns the proxy and target domains using inter- and intra-domain mixup regularization. This mitigates the negative impact of noisy labels. Experiments on three 2D image and 3D point cloud object recognition benchmarks demonstrate that ProxyMix yields state-of-the-art performance for source-free UDA tasks.

Temporal variations of urban re-suspended road dust characteristics and its vital contributions to airborne PM2.5/PM10 during a long period in Beijing.

Re-suspended road dust RRD as RRD2.5 and RRD10 can even more easily enter the atmospheric environment, showing a kind of significant potential to influence atmospheric environment. A campaign of sampling RRD samples at 53 sites and aerosol samples at a representative urban site in Beijing in October 2014, January, April and July 2015 was accomplished, and combined with RRD in 2003, and 2016-2018 periods to investigate the seasonal variations of chemical components in RRD2.5 and RRD10, long-term evolutions of RRD characteristics in 2003-2018, and source composition changes of RRD. Meanwhile a technique based on Mg/Al indicator for effectively estimating contributions of RRD to PM was developed. It is found that pollution elements and water-soluble ions in RRD were largely enriched in RRD2.5. The pollution elements presented an obvious seasonal variation in RRD2.5, however showed various seasonal variations in RRD10. These pollution elements in RRD, due to being mainly impacted by both increasing traffic activities and atmospheric pollution control measures, almost display a single-peak change in 2003-2018. The water-soluble ions in RRD2.5 and RRD10 presented various seasonal variations, and displayed an evident increase in 2003-2015. The source composition of RRD in 2003-2015 posed a significant change that traffic activities, crustal soil, secondary pollution species and biomass combustion became significant contributors to RRD. The contributions of RRD2.5/RRD10 to mineral aerosols in PM2.5/PM10 presented a similar seasonal variation. The synergistic effects of meteorological factors and anthropogenic activities in different seasons were significant motive force influencing the contributions of RRD to the mineral aerosols. The pollution elements Cr and Ni in RRD2.5 were the significant contributors to PM2.5, however, Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, and Pb in RRD10 were the important contributors to PM10. The research will provide a new significant scientific guide for further controlling atmospheric pollution and improving air quality.

Comparison of the immunogenicity of nasal-spray rVSV vector, adenovirus vector, and inactivated COVID-19-based vaccines in rodent models.

Intranasal (i.n.) vaccines can induce mucosal and systemic immunity against respiratory pathogens. Previously, we demonstrated that the recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus (rVSV)-based COVID-19 vaccine rVSV-SARS-CoV-2, with poor immunogenicity via the intramuscular route (i.m.), is more suitable for i.n. administration in mice and nonhuman primates. Here, we found that the rVSV-SARS-CoV-2 Beta variant was more immunogenic than the wild-type strain and other variants of concern (VOCs) in golden Syrian hamsters. Furthermore, the immune responses elicited by rVSV-based vaccine candidates via the i.n. route were significantly higher than those of two licensed vaccines: the inactivated vaccine KCONVAC delivered via the i.m. route and the adenovirus-based Vaxzevria delivered i.n. or i.m. We next assessed the booster efficacy of rVSV following two i.m. doses of KCONVAC. Twenty-eight days after receiving two i.m. doses of KCONVAC, hamsters were boosted with a third dose of KCONVAC (i.m.), Vaxzevria (i.m. or i.n.), or rVSVs (i.n.). Consistent with other heterologous booster studies, Vaxzevria and rVSV elicited significantly higher humoral immunity than the homogenous KCONVAC. In summary, our results confirmed that two i.n. doses of rVSV-Beta elicited significantly higher humoral immune responses than commercial inactivated and adeno-based COVID vaccines in hamsters. As a heterologous booster dose, rVSV-Beta induced potent, persistent, and broad-spectrum humoral and mucosal neutralizing responses against all VOCs, highlighting its potential to be developed into a nasal-spray vaccine.

Screening core genes and signaling pathways after SFTSV infection by integrated transcriptome profiling analysis.

A newly discovered tick-borne virus called the severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus (SFTSV) can cause the severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome (SFTS). The mortality and incidence rate of SFTS patients remain extremely high due to the fast global dissemination of its arthropod vectors, and the mechanism of viral pathogenesis remains largely unknown. In this study, high-throughput RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) was used to sequence HEK 293 cells treated with SFTSV at four time points. 115, 191, 259, and 660 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified at 6, 12, 24, and 48 h post-infection, respectively. We found that SFTSV infection induced the expression of genes responsible for numerous cytokine-related pathways, including TNF, CXCL1, CXCL2, CXCL3, CXCL8, CXCL10, and CCL20. With the extension of infection time, the expression of most genes involved in these pathways increased significantly, indicating the host's inflammatory response to SFTSV. Moreover, the expression levels of GNA13, ARHGEF12, RHOA, ROCK1, and MYL12A, elements of the platelet activation signaling pathway, were downregulated during SFTSV infection, suggesting that the SFTSV infection may cause thrombocytopenia by inhibiting platelet activation. Our results contribute to further understanding the interaction between SFTSV and the host.

Two Point Mutations in the Glycoprotein of SFTSV Enhance the Propagation Recombinant Vesicular Stomatitis Virus Vectors at Assembly Step.

Severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus (SFTSV) is an emerging tick-borne pathogen for which approved therapeutic drugs or vaccines are not available. We previously developed a recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus-based vaccine candidate (rVSV-SFTSV) by replacing the original glycoprotein with Gn/Gc from SFTSV, which conferred complete protection in a mouse model. Here, we found that two spontaneous mutations, M749T/C617R, emerged in the Gc glycoprotein during passaging that could significantly increase the titer of rVSV-SFTSV. M749T/C617R enhanced the genetic stability of rVSV-SFTSV, and no further mutations appeared after 10 passages. Using immunofluorescence analysis, we found that M749T/C617R could increase glycoprotein traffic to the plasma membrane, thus facilitating virus assembly. Remarkably, the broad-spectrum immunogenicity of rVSV-SFTSV was not affected by the M749T/C617R mutations. Overall, M749T/C617R could enhance the further development of rVSV-SFTSV into an effective vaccine in the future.

Infection and transovarial transmission of severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus in Rhipicephalus sanguineus in Hainan Island, China.

Severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus (SFTSV) RNA level increased in female ticks after injection with SFTSV. Furthermore, SFTSV RNA was detected in the eggs and larvae that originated from the virus-infected female ticks.

Broad Host Tropism of Flaviviruses during the Entry Stage.

The genus Flavivirus consists of viruses with various hosts, including insect-specific flaviviruses (ISFs), mosquito-borne flaviviruses (MBFs), tick-borne flaviviruses (TBFs), and no-known vector (NKV) flaviviruses. Using the reporter viral particle (RVP) system, we found the efficient entry of ISFs into vertebrate cells, MBFs into tick cells, as well as NKVs and TBFs into mosquito cells with similar entry characteristics. By construction of reverse genetics, we found that Yokose virus (YOKV), an NKV, could enter and replicate in mosquito cells but failed to produce infectious particles. The complete removal of the glycosylation modification on the envelope proteins of flaviviruses had no obvious effect on the entry of all MBFs and TBFs. Our results demonstrate an entry-independent host-tropism mechanism and provide a new insight into the evolution of flaviviruses. IMPORTANCE Vector-borne flaviviruses, such as Zika virus, have extremely broad host and cell tropism, even though no critical entry receptors have yet been identified. Using an RVP system, we found the efficient entry of ISFs, MBFs, TBFs, and NKVs into their nonhost cells with similar characteristics. However, glycan-binding proteins cannot serve as universal entry receptors. Our results demonstrate an entry-independent host-tropism mechanism and give a new insight into the cross-species evolution of flaviviruses.

Replicating-Competent VSV-Vectored Pseudotyped Viruses.

Vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) is prototype virus in the family of Rhabdoviridae. Reverse genetic platform has enabled the genetic manipulation of VSV as a powerful live viral vector. Replicating-competent VSV is constructed by replacing the original VSV glycoprotein gene with heterologous envelope genes. The resulting recombinant viruses are able to replicate in permissive cells and incorporate the foreign envelope proteins on the surface of the viral particle without changing the bullet-shape morphology. Correspondingly, the cell tropism of replicating-competent VSV is determined by the foreign envelope proteins. Replicating-competent VSVs have been successfully used for selecting critical viral receptors or host factors, screening mutants that escape therapeutic antibodies, and developing VSV-based live viral vaccines.

Resurrection of endogenous retroviruses during aging reinforces senescence.

Whether and how certain transposable elements with viral origins, such as endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) dormant in our genomes, can become awakened and contribute to the aging process is largely unknown. In human senescent cells, we found that HERVK (HML-2), the most recently integrated human ERVs, are unlocked to transcribe viral genes and produce retrovirus-like particles (RVLPs). These HERVK RVLPs constitute a transmissible message to elicit senescence phenotypes in young cells, which can be blocked by neutralizing antibodies. The activation of ERVs was also observed in organs of aged primates and mice as well as in human tissues and serum from the elderly. Their repression alleviates cellular senescence and tissue degeneration and, to some extent, organismal aging. These findings indicate that the resurrection of ERVs is a hallmark and driving force of cellular senescence and tissue aging.

prM-reactive antibodies reveal a role for partially mature virions in dengue virus pathogenesis.

Cleavage of the flavivirus premembrane (prM) structural protein during maturation can be inefficient. The contribution of partially mature flavivirus virions that retain uncleaved prM to pathogenesis during primary infection is unknown. To investigate this question, we characterized the functional properties of newly-generated dengue virus (DENV) prM-reactive monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) in vitro and using a mouse model of DENV disease. Anti-prM mAbs neutralized DENV infection in a virion maturation state-dependent manner. Alanine scanning mutagenesis and cryoelectron microscopy of anti-prM mAbs in complex with immature DENV defined two modes of attachment to a single antigenic site. In vivo, passive transfer of intact anti-prM mAbs resulted in an antibody-dependent enhancement of disease. However, protection against DENV-induced lethality was observed when the transferred mAbs were genetically modified to inhibit their ability to interact with Fcγ receptors. These data establish that in addition to mature forms of the virus, partially mature infectious prM+ virions can also contribute to pathogenesis during primary DENV infections.

Infection of SARS-CoV-2 causes severe pathological changes in mouse testis.

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has affected more than 600 million people worldwide. Several organs including lung, intestine, and brain are infected by SARS-CoV-2. It has been reported that SARS-CoV-2 receptor angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE2) is expressed in human testis. However, whether testis is also affected by SARS-CoV-2 is still unclear. In this study, we generate a human ACE2 (hACE2) transgenic mouse model in which the expression of hACE2 gene is regulated by hACE2 promoter. Sertoli and Leydig cells from hACE2 transgenic mice can be infected by SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus in vitro, and severe pathological changes are observed after injecting the SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus into the seminiferous tubules. Further studies reveal that Sertoli and Leydig cells from hACE2 transgenic mice are also infected by authentic SARS-CoV-2 virus in vitro. After testis interstitium injection, authentic SARS-CoV-2 viruses are first disseminated to the interstitial cells, and then detected inside the seminiferous tubules which in turn cause germ cell loss and disruption of seminiferous tubules. Our study demonstrates that testis is most likely a target of SARS-CoV-2 virus. Attention should be paid to the reproductive function in SARS-CoV-2 patients.

Synergistic effects of EP-1 and ivermectin mixture (iEP-1) to control rodents and their ectoparasites.

BACKGROUND: Ectoparasites of rodents play significant roles in disease transmission to humans. Conventional poisoning potentially reduces the population densities of rodents, however, they may increase the ectoparasite loads on the surviving hosts. EP-1 has been shown to have anti-fertility effects on many rodent species, while ivermectin is effective in controlling ectoparasites. In this study, we examined the combined effects of EP-1 and ivermectin mixture (iEP-1) baits on rodents and their corresponding flea/tick loads. RESULTS: In males, the weight of testis, epididymis, and seminiferous vesicle were reduced to less than 33%, 25%, and 17%, respectively, compared to the control group following administration of iEP-1 for 7 days. The weight of the uterus increased by approximately 75%. After 5 days of iEP-1 intake, all ticks were killed, whereas 94% of fleas on mice died after 3 days of bait intake. In the field test near Beijing, the flea index was reduced by more than 90% after 7 days of iEP-1 bait delivery. In a field test in Inner Mongolia, the weights of testis, epididymis, and seminiferous vesicle were significantly reduced by 27%, 32%, and 57%, respectively, 2 weeks after iEP-1 bait delivery. Approximately 36% rodents exhibited obvious uterine oedema accompanied by a weight increase of about 150%. The flea index was reduced by over 90%. CONCLUSION: Our results indicated that iEP-1 is a promising treatment for reducing the abundance of both small rodents and their ectoparasites; this will be effective for managing rodent damage and transmission of rodent-borne diseases associated with fleas and ticks. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.