Neprilysin expression and functions in development, ageing and disease.

Neprilysin (NEP) is an integral membrane-bound metallopeptidase with a wide spectrum of substrates and physiological functions. It plays an important role in proteolytic processes in the kidney, cardiovascular regulation, immune response, cell proliferation, foetal development etc. It is an important neuropeptidase and amyloid-degrading enzyme which makes NEP a therapeutic target in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Moreover, it plays a preventive role in development of cancer, obesity and type-2 diabetes. Recently a role of NEP in COVID-19 pathogenesis has also been suggested. Despite intensive research into NEP structure and functions in different organisms, changes in its expression and regulation during brain development and ageing, especially in age-related pathologies, is still not fully understood. This prevents development of pharmacological treatments from various diseases in which NEP is implicated although recently a dual-acting drug sacubitril-valsartan (LCZ696) combining a NEP inhibitor and angiotensin receptor blocker has been approved for treatment of heart failure. Also, various natural compounds capable of upregulating NEP expression, including green tea (EGCG), have been proposed as a preventive medicine in prostate cancer and AD. This review summarizes the existing literature and our own research on the expression and activity of NEP in normal brain development, ageing and under pathological conditions.

Regulation of Neprilysin Activity and Cognitive Functions in Rats After Prenatal Hypoxia.

The amyloid-degrading enzyme neprilysin (NEP) is one of the therapeutic targets in prevention and treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD). As we have shown previously NEP expression in rat parietal cortex (Cx) and hippocampus (Hip) decreases with age and is also significantly reduced after prenatal hypoxia. Following the paradigms for enhancement of NEP expression and activity developed in cell culture, we analysed the efficacy of various compounds able to upregulate NEP using our model of prenatal hypoxia in rats. In addition to the previous data demonstrating that valproic acid can upregulate NEP expression both in neuroblastoma cells and in rat Cx and Hip we have further confirmed that caspase inhibitors can also restore NEP expression in rat Cx reduced after prenatal hypoxia. Here we also report that administration of a green tea catechin epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) to adult rats subjected to prenatal hypoxia increased NEP activity in blood plasma, Cx and Hip as well as improved memory performance in the 8-arm maze and novel object recognition tests. Moreover, EGCG administration led to an increased number of dendritic spines in the hippocampal CA1 area which correlated with memory enhancement. The data obtained allowed us to conclude that the decrease in the activity of the amyloid-degrading enzyme NEP, as well as a reduction in the number of labile interneuronal contacts in the hippocampus, contribute to early cognitive deficits caused by prenatal hypoxia and that there are therapeutic avenues to restore these deficits via NEP activation which could also be used for designing preventive strategies in AD.

Early morphological and functional changes in the GABAergic system of hippocampus in the rat lithium-pilocarpine model of epilepsy.

We studied early alterations in the GABAergic system of the rat hippocampus in the lithium-pilocarpine model of epilepsy. Twenty-four hours after the pilocarpine treatment, a decrease in the number of calretinin-positive interneurons was observed in the CA1 field of the hippocampus, whereas the number of parvalbumin-positive interneurons remained unchanged. The decreased levels of the GABA-synthesizing enzyme glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD67) and the membrane GABA transporter GAT1 were revealed using Western blot analysis. These data indicate an altered excitation/inhibition balance in the hippocampus with excitation dominance.

[ELECTRICAL ACTIVITY OF THE NEOCORTEX IN ADULT RATS AFTER PRENATAL HYPOXIA AND IN EPILEPSY MODEL].

Changes in electrical activity of neocortex after prenatal hypoxia (day 14 of embryogenesis - E14, 7 % 02 for 3 hours) and these combined with intracortical microinjection of epileptogenic 4-aminopyridine (4-AP) have been studied in adult rats. We analyzed the frequency-time parameters of electrocorticogram (ECoG) during sleep and wakefulness as well as spike-wave discharge (SWD) in 4-AP-induced epileptiform model. The results showed that in rats subjected to prenatal hypoxia the theta rhythm had a lower frequency and sleep spindles were characterized by lower spectral power in low-frequency domain in comparison with the control group. In rats with prenatal pathology delayed onset of epileptiform activi- ty and altered frequency distribution of the spectral power of 4-AP-induced SWD were revealed.

[The effect of hypoxia on cholinesterase activity in rat sensorimotor cortex].

This study reports the dynamics of changes in postnatal ontogenesis of the activity of soluble and membrane-bound forms of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) in sensorimotor cortex of rats as well as the pattern of their changes after prenatal hypoxia (E14, 7% O2, 3 h) or acute hypoxia in adult animals (4 months, 7% O2, 3 h). In normally developing rats the activity of the membrane-bound AChE form in the sensorimotor cortex gradually increased up to the end of the first month after birth and remained at this high level during all further postnatal ontogenesis, while the activity of the soluble form of AChE reached its maximum on the 10th day after birth and decreased significantly by the end of the first month. In animals exposed to prenatal hypoxia the activity both of the soluble and membrane bound forms of AChE during the first two weeks after birth was 20-25% lower, as compared to controls but increased by the end of the first month and even exceeded the control values remaining increased up to old age (1.5 years). The activity of both BChE forms in rat sensorimotor cortex at all stages of postnatal ontogenesis was significantly lower than of AChE, although the dynamics of their changes was similar to that of AChE. Prenatal hypoxia led to a decrease in the activity of the membrane-bound form of BChE, as compared to controls, practically at all developmental stages studied, but was higher at the end of the first month after birth. At the same time, the activity of the soluble form of BChE was decreased only on the 20th day of development, as compared to the control, but increased from the end of the first month of life onwards. Acute hypoxia in adult rats also led to a decrease in the activity of both forms of AChE and BChE in the sensorimotor cortex but the dynamics of these changes was different for each enzyme. Thus, insufficient oxygen supply to the nervous tissue at different stages of ontogenesis has a significant effect on the activity and ratio of various forms of cholinesterases exhibiting either growth factor or signaling properties. This may lead to changes in brain development and formation of behavioural reactions, including learning and memory, and also increase the risk of development of the sporadic form of Alzheimer's disease (AD)--one of the most common neurodegenerative diseases of advanced age. This study expands our knowledge of the properties of brain cholinesterases under normal and pathological conditions and may be useful for developing new approaches towards prevention and treatment of AD.

Delayed effect of prenatal exposure to hypoxia on the susceptibility of rats to electric seizures.

We studied the delayed effects of prenatal exposure to hypoxia on the susceptibility of rats to seizures. The later was estimated using graded electroshock. The experiments were performed in two groups of 1.5-year-old male Wistar rats. The experimental group consisted of the animals that were exposed to hypoxia on day 14 of prenatal development, and the control group consisted of the animals that developed under the normal conditions. In the rats subjected to prenatal hypoxia, seizure episodes induced by weak currents in the range of 10-40 mA and their average duration were more pronounced as compared to the control animals.

[ROLE OF CASPASE-3 IN REGULATION OF THE CONTENT OF THE AMYLOID-DEGRADING NEUROPEPTIDASE NEPRILYSIN IN THE CORTEX OF RATS AFTER HYPOXIA].

Analysis of the effect of a caspase-3 inhibitor on the content of the amyloid-degrading neuropeptidase neprilysin (NEP) in the cortex of rats subjected to prenatal hypoxia (7% O2, 3 h) on the 14-th day of the embryonic development (E14) was performed. It was found that rats subjected to prenatal hypoxia on days 20-30 after birth have an increased content and activity of caspase-3 with reduced levels of NEP and of the C-terminal fragment of the amyloid precursor protein (AICD) regulating NEP expression. In hypoxic animals 3 days after a single injection of a caspase inhibitor (i. v., Ac-DEVD-CHO, P20) the content of AICD and NEP was found to be increased up to the levels observed in control rats. The data obtained suggest that the increase of caspase-3 enzyme activity could affect NEP expression via proteolytic degradation of its transcription factor AICD. These data for the first time demonstrate the role of caspases in AICD-dependent regulation of NEP production in the brain of mammals under hypoxic conditions.

[Morphofunctional changes in field CA1 of the rat hippocampus after pentylenetetrazole and lithium-pilocarpine induced seizures].

Animal models of epilepsy are very diverse and are used to elucidate the mechanisms underlying epileptogenesis and seizures. A single administration of pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) induces seizures, however it does not increase risk of further development of epilepsy. Pilocarpine immediately after injection evokes status epilepticus and after a latent period spontaneous convulsions develop in animals, i. e., the drug initiates the process of epileptogenesis. Assuming that in the PTZ model morphofunctional changes are mainly transient whereas changes in the lithium-pilocarpine (PC) model can indicate development of the brain epileptizationm, we compared morphological and functional characteristics in field CA1 of the hippocampus in a control and two groups of experimental animals 24 h after administration of convulsants. We revealed changes specific to the PC model and indicating the process of neurodegeneration: a decrease of the cell density, an altered NeuN expression, and an increase of the proapoptotic protease caspase-3 activity. A characteristic feature of the PTZ model was appearance of hyperchromic neurons with normal viability. In both models expression of the excitatory amino acids carrier EAAT1 increased by about 40% as compared to control. These morphofunctional correlates of reversible changes in the nervous tissue, caused by the convulsive state, and the early disturbances leading to the long-term brain epileptization can be used as indicators for evaluating therapeutic potential of novel anticonvulsive drugs.

Molecular properties of lysine dendrimers and their interactions with Aß-peptides and neuronal cells.

Prevention of amyloidosis by chemical compounds is a potential therapeutic strategy in Alzheimer's, prion and other neurodegenerative diseases. Regularly branched dendrimers and less regular hyperbranched polymers have been suggested as promising inhibitors of amyloid aggregation. As demonstrated in our previous studies, some widely used dendrimers (PAMAM, PPI) could not only inhibit amyloid aggregation in solution but also dissolve mature fibrils. In this study we have performed computer simulation of polylysine dendrimers of 3rd and 5th generations (D3 and D5) and analysed the effect of these dendrimers and some hyperbranched polymers on a lysine base (HpbK) on aggregation of amyloid peptide in solution. The effects of dendrimers on cell viability and their protective action against Aß-induced cytotoxicity and alteration of K+channels was also analysed using human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells. In addition, using fluorescence microscopy, we analysed uptake of FITC-conjugated D3 by SH-SY5Y cells and its distribution in the brain after intraventricular injections to rats. Our results demonstrated that dendrimers D3 and D5 inhibited amyloid aggregation in solution while HpbK enhanced amyloid aggregation. Cell viability and patch-clamp studies have shown that D3 can protect cells against Aß-induced cytotoxicity and K+channel modulation. In contrast, HpbK had no protective effect against Aß. Fluorescence microscopy studies demonstrated that FITC-D3 accumulates in the vacuolar compartments of the cells and can be detected in various brain structures and populations of cells after injections to the brain. As such, polylysine dendrimers D3 and D5 can be proposed as compounds for developing antiamyloidogenic drugs.

[Effects of repeated short-term immobilization stress on plastisity of brain cortical division and cognition in adult rats with normal and disturbed embryogenesis].

The aim of the work was the analysis of the changes in a number of labile synaptopodin-positi- ve dendritic spines in parietal cortex and the CA1 field of the hippocampus, which characterize plasticity of intracellular interaction, and of the memorization after short-term repeated immobili- zation stress (daily for 5 minutes, 10 days), both in control rats and in rats subjected to prenatal hypoxia (E14, 7% of O2, 3 hours). There were observed deterioration of short-term and long-term memory, decrease in number labile spines in the CA1 field of the hippocampus (for 17.3 ± 10.4%; p ≤ 0.05) and their increase in a molecular layer of brain parietal cortex (for 36.9 ± 9.2%) at the adult rats with normal embryogenesis after immobilization stress in comparison with control intact animals. At the rats subjected to a prenatal hypoxia, regardless of that, they were ex- posed to an immobilized stress at an adult stage or not, was noted both violation of short-term and long-term memory, and decrease in number labile spines in the CA1 field of the hippocampus (for 22.9 ± 10.5%) and parietal cortex (for 28.1 ± 9.3%). The obtained data allow to conclude that the increase of plasticity providing adaptive behavior of animals, takes place in neocortical neuronal networks as a reply to a short-term repeating stress only at normal brain formation during embryo- genesis, while, violation of embryogenesis leads to decrease in plasticity and adaptive opportuni- ties of the nervous system during further ontogenesis.

[The ability of NMDA glutamate receptor blockers to prevent a pentylenetetrazole kindling in mice and morphological changes in the hippocampus].

We investigated in mice the relationship between convulsions and morphological changes of hippocampal neurons that arise in the development of pentylentetrazol (PTZ)-induced kindling. The kindling was caused by of 35 mg/kg PTZ i.p. 3 times a week for a month. By the end of this period, 70% of the mice responded to the injections of PTZ with pronounced clonic or tonic-clonic seizures. The hippocampal slices (layer stratum pyramidale, CA1, Nissl's stain) obtained from mice exhibiting seizures revealed a large number of modified cells (24.7 +/- 2.1%). These hyperchromic neurons have been characterized by a decrease of the size cell body, there was a loss of turgor, the body cells shrink, and dendritic spines curl. Part of the cells took the shape of elongated neck. Such modified the dark type of neurons contained only 2.3 +/- 2.3% in the hippocampus of intact mice, and 30% of the mice resistant to the convulsive action ofPTZ during the period of observation. The expression of protein NeuN (Fox3) in hippocamal neuron including the hyperchromic once suggests that neurons on the whole did not die and were relatively viable. Preventive administration of NMDA receptor blockers (0.5 mg/kg, memantine 0.1 mg/kg or IEM-1958 1 mg/kg, s.c.) 30 minutes prior to PTZ reduced the proportion of mice which exhibited PTZ kindling from 70% to 40%. The modified neurons were observed in which the PTZ kindling due to the blocker presence did not develop, i.e., the same as in intact mice. Contrary, 24.0 +/- 5.6% of hyperchromic neurons were found in the hippocampal slices from mice manifested seizures, despite the co-administration of NMDA blockers. The data obtained indicate that modified neurons are the result of seizures suffered by the animals in the course of PTZ kindling, and that the blockade of NMDA glutamate receptors can suppress manifestations of seizures and the accompanying morphological changes of hippocampal neurons.

The Alzheimer's amyloid-degrading peptidase, neprilysin: can we control it?

The amyloid cascade hypothesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) postulates that accumulation in the brain of amyloid ß-peptide (Aß) is the primary trigger for neuronal loss specific to this pathology. In healthy brain, Aß levels are regulated by a dynamic equilibrium between Aß release from the amyloid precursor protein (APP) and its removal by perivascular drainage or by amyloid-degrading enzymes (ADEs). During the last decade, the ADE family was fast growing, and currently it embraces more than 20 members. There are solid data supporting involvement of each of them in Aß clearance but a zinc metallopeptidase neprilysin (NEP) is considered as a major ADE. NEP plays an important role in brain function due to its role in terminating neuropeptide signalling and its decrease during ageing or after such pathologies as hypoxia or ischemia contribute significantly to the development of AD pathology. The recently discovered mechanism of epigenetic regulation of NEP by the APP intracellular domain (AICD) opens new avenues for its therapeutic manipulation and raises hope for developing preventive strategies in AD. However, consideration needs to be given to the diverse physiological roles of NEP. This paper critically evaluates general biochemical and physiological functions of NEP and their therapeutic relevance.

[Platelet cytochrome c-oxidase and glutamine synthetase-like protein in patients with mild cognitive impairment].

The study aimed to develop pre-clinical diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and - in future - preventive therapy in patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). The MCI group (n=44) and AD group (n=42, including 18 patients with soft dementia and 24 patients with mild dementia) were studied. The groups were matched for age (median 70 and 69 years for MCI and AD groups, respectively). The control group comprised 24 mentally healthy relatives of the patients. Correlations between the activity/amounts of platelet enzymes: cytochrome c-oxidase (COX), glutamine synthetase-like protein (GSLP) and the extent of cognitive impairment were studied. The COX activity in MCI and AD groups was significantly lower than in the control group (Kruskal-Wallis test p=0.0001, χ²=11.6, p=0.003). These tests showed significant differences in GSLP amount between three groups (p=0.04 and χ²=9.38, p=0.01, respectively). Significant reverse correlation (Spearman R= -0.43, p=0.007) was found between GSLP amount and MMSE scores for MCI+AD group, i.e., the lower MMSE scores, the higher platelet GSLP level. Platelet COX and GSLP may be considered as early markers of cognitive impairment.

[Study of distribution of protein of the spine apparatus synaptopodin in cortical brain parts of rats submitted to hypoxia at different periods of embryogenesis].

A comparative study of the nervous tissue and distribution of the spine apparatus protein synaptopodin was performed in all layers of the brain sensorymotor cortex and hippocampal CA1 area in control rats and in the rats submitted to hypoxia at E14 and E18. It was found that beginning from the 20th day of postnatal development, in rats submitted to hypoxia both at E14 and E18 there was observed a statistically significant decrease of the mean number of labile synaptopodin-positive spines in the stratum radiatum molecular of the hippocampus area CA1. The decrease of the number of labile spines in the sensorymotor brain cortex was revealed only in the I layer beginning from the 20th day after birth in the rats submitted to hypoxia at E14. Maximal differences in the studied brain areas were observed in adult rats (exposed to hypoxia at E14: in the neocortex--a decrease by 23 +/- 10%, in hippocampus--by 24 +/- 8%, respectively). In adult animals, the increased degeneration of neuzons was not detected. It is suggested that disturbances in cognitive functions and in the capability for learning observed in rats after prenatal hypoxia can be due to a decrease of the amount of the labile synaptopodin-positive spines, which leads to a change of the structural-functional properties of neuronal networks and to a decrease of their plasticity.

Ontogenetic characteristics of behavior in rats subjected to hypoxia on day 14 or day 18 of embryogenesis.

Physiological development, motor activity, and cognitive functions were studied in rats subjected to acute normobaric hypoxic hypoxia (3 h at an O2 concentration of 7%) at different stages of embryogenesis (days E14 or E18). Prenatal hypoxia was found to lead to delays in physiological development and the establishment of motor behavior during the first month of postnatal ontogenesis. These changes were more marked in rats subjected to hypoxia on day 14 of intrauterine development and disappeared with age. In adult rats, regardless of the timing of exposure to hypoxia (E14 or E18), learning ability was degraded and long-term and short-term memory were impaired. These results suggest that exposure to the pathogenic factor during the main period of neuroblast generation and migration (E14) was significant both for physiological development and the establishment of motor behavior in the animals and for the execution of the cognitive functions of the brain, while exposure during the period at which maturation and differentiation processes dominate in the brain (E18) was more significant in relation to the execution of cognitive functions.

[Changes in the activity of amyloid-degrading metallopeptidases leads to disruption of memory in rats].

In old male Wistar rats (older than 12 months), or adult males (3-4 months) subjected to prenatal hypoxia (7% 02, 3 h, E14), a disruption of short-term memory was observed. The prenatal hypoxia also led to a decrease in the brain cortex expression of metallopeptidases neprilysin (NEP) and endothelin-converting enzyme (ECE-1) which regulate some neuropeptides and are the main beta-amyloid-degrading enzymes. Moreover, a significant decrease (by 2.7 times) in NEP activity in the sensorimotor cortex of old and adult rats subjected to prenatal hypoxia (by 1.7 times) was observed. To confirm possible involvement of these enzymes in memory, the analysis of the effect of microinjections of phosphoramidon (an inhibitor of NEP and ECE-1), and thiorphan (an inhibitor of NEP) into the rat sensorimotor cortex was carried out. In a two-level radial maze test, a disruption of short-term memory was observed 60 and 120 min after i.c. injection ofphosphoramidon (5.9 microg/microl) and 30 and 60 min after i.c. injection of thiorphan (2.5 microg/microl). The involvement of NEP and ECE-1 in short-term memory suggests that a decrease in the level of expression and activity of metallopeptidases involved in metabolism of beta-amyloid peptide (Abeta) and other neuropeptides is one of the main factors in disruption of cognitive functions after prenatal hypoxia or in the process of ageing.

[Change of the neocortex nervous tissue in rat ontogenesis after hypoxia at various terms of embryogenesis].

The performed study has shown that in rats submitted to hypoxia (3 h, 7% O2) at the 14th day of embryogenesis (E14) as compared with control animals, density of disposition of cells in the brain cortex decreased for the first month of postnatal ontogenesis (maximally by 40.8% by P20). In dying neurons, swelling of the cell body, lysis of organoids, and disturbance of the cytoplasmic membrane intactness were observed. Two waved of neuronal death by the mechanism of caspase-dependent apoptosis were revealed; the first involved large pyramidal neurons of the V layer (P10-20), the second--small pyramidal and non-pyramidal neurons of the II--III layers (P20-30). In neuropil of molecular layer, a decrease of the mean amount of labile synaptopodin-positive dendrite spines was observed, as compared with control. In rats exposed to hypoxia at E18, no changes of cell composition and structure of the nervous tissue were found in the studied brain cortex areas. Thus, formation of the cortex nervous tissue in postnatal ontogenesis of rats submitted to hypoxia at the period of neuroblast proliferation-migration is accompanied not only by a change of the cell composition of various cortex layers in early ontogenesis, but also by a decrease of the number of the synaptopodin-positive spines in molecular layer, the decrease being preserved in adult animals.