Topical delivery of diclofenac into and across equine skin from a novel liquid diclofenac epolamine formulation.

The aim was to investigate diclofenac delivery into and across equine skin in vitro using Franz diffusion cells from a novel diclofenac epolamine (DIC-EP; 1.3%) formulation and to compare the results to those of Surpass® (1% diclofenac sodium liposomal cream) and a 1% aqueous solution of diclofenac sodium. Skin was harvested from the lower legs of Freiberger geldings immediately after slaughter and sliced to a thickness of ~2 mm. Skin samples were divided into two groups [Group 1: 1 year old (n = 2) and Group 2: 6-8 years old (n = 3)]. Cumulative permeation of diclofenac in Groups 1 and 2 after 24 h using diclofenac sodium solution was 1.91 ± 0.27 and 1.76 ± 0.34 µg/cm2 , respectively. The values for Surpass® and DIC-EP were 3.2 ± 0.8/3.3 ± 0.7 µg/cm2 and 230 ± 59/89.2 ± 32.5 µg/cm2 , respectively. Thus, diclofenac permeation from DIC-EP was significantly greater and appeared to show an age-dependent effect. Mathematical modelling showed that the DIC-EP formulation significantly increased diclofenac partitioning into the skin and a linear correlation was observed between steady-state flux and the partition parameter. Greater skin deposition of diclofenac was also observed with DIC-EP. These preliminary results suggest that the DIC-EP formulation may be effective in treating inflammatory conditions in horses.

Semi-synthetic heparinoids.

New chemical-enzymatic technology based on the modification of the bacterial polysaccharide K5 from Escherichia coli leads to the synthesis of a number of heparin/heparan sulfate-like molecules with different biological activities. With this technology, two families of sulfated compounds were synthesized, which differ in their uronic acid content. The first group contains only glucuronic acid, whereas the second group contains about 50% iduronic acid following epimerization by immobilized recombinant C5 epimerase. This has led to the development of various anticoagulant and nonanticoagulant K5 derivatives endowed with different - and sometimes highly specific - antitumor, antiviral, and/or anti-inflammatory activities.

Sulfated K5 Escherichia coli polysaccharide derivatives inhibit human immunodeficiency type-1 (HIV-1) infection: candidate microbicides to prevent sexual HIV transmission.

The ideal microbicide must fulfill a number of criteria including a broad and potent activity against transmission of HIV and other sexually transmitted agents in the absence of toxicity and inflammation. We have described that derivatives of K5 polysaccharide from Escherichia coli inhibit HIV entry in target cells. K5 derivatives have a structure that resembles that of heparin, but they are devoid of the anticoagulant activity typical of heparin. Moreover, in contrast to heparin, they inhibit a broad spectrum of HIV-1 laboratory-adapted and primary isolates that use either CCR5 or CXCR4 or both coreceptors in terms of their infection and replication in primary CD4+ lymphocytes and monocytes-derived macrophages (MDM). Therefore, these compounds could be developed as candidate microbicides for preventing sexual HIV transmission, a predominant modality of HIV spreading in both the developed and underdeveloped world.

Toward a biotechnological heparin through combined chemical and enzymatic modification of the Escherichia coli K5 polysaccharide.

A process to generate glycosaminoglycans with heparin- and heparan sulfate-like sequences from the Escherichia coli K5 capsular polysaccharide is described. This polymer has the same structure as N-acetylheparosan, the precursor in heparin/ heparan sulfate biosynthesis. The process involves chemical N-deacetylation and N-sulfation, enzymatic conversion of up to 60% of the D-glucuronic acid to L-iduronic acid residues, and chemical O-sulfation. Because direct sulfation afforded unwanted 3-O-sulfated (instead of 2-O-sulfated) iduronic acid residues, a strategy involving graded solvolytic desulfation of chemically oversulfated C5-epimerized sulfaminoheparosans was assessed using persulfated heparin and heparan sulfate as model compounds. The O-desulfation process was shown to increase the anti-factor Xa activity of oversulfated heparin.

Fibroblast growth factor-2 antagonist activity and angiostatic capacity of sulfated Escherichia coli K5 polysaccharide derivatives.

The angiogenic basic fibroblast growth factor (FGF2) interacts with tyrosine kinase receptors (FGFRs) and heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) in endothelial cells. Here, we report the FGF2 antagonist and antiangiogenic activity of novel sulfated derivatives of the Escherichia coli K5 polysaccharide. K5 polysaccharide was chemically sulfated in N- and/or O-position after N-deacetylation. O-Sulfated and N,O-sulfated K5 derivatives with a low degree and a high degree of sulfation compete with heparin for binding to 125I-FGF2 with different potency. Accordingly, they abrogate the formation of the HSPG.FGF2.FGFR ternary complex, as evidenced by their capacity to prevent FGF2-mediated cell-cell attachment of FGFR1-overexpressing HSPG-deficient Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells to wild-type CHO cells. They also inhibited 125I-FGF2 binding to FGFR1-overexpressing HSPG-bearing CHO cells and adult bovine aortic endothelial cells. K5 derivatives also inhibited FGF2-mediated cell proliferation in endothelial GM 7373 cells and in human umbilical vein endothelial (HUVE) cells. In all these assays, the N-sulfated K5 derivative and unmodified K5 were poorly effective. Also, highly O-sulfated and N,O-sulfated K5 derivatives prevented the sprouting of FGF2-transfected endothelial FGF2-T-MAE cells in fibrin gel and spontaneous angiogenesis in vitro on Matrigel of FGF2-T-MAE and HUVE cells. Finally, the highly N,O-sulfated K5 derivative exerted a potent antiangiogenic activity on the chick embryo chorioallantoic membrane. These data demonstrate the possibility of generating FGF2 antagonists endowed with antiangiogenic activity by specific chemical sulfation of bacterial K5 polysaccharide. In particular, the highly N,O-sulfated K5 derivative may provide the basis for the design of novel angiostatic compounds.

Multiple interactions of HIV-I Tat protein with size-defined heparin oligosaccharides.

Tat protein, a transactivating factor of the human immunodeficiency virus type I, acts also as an extracellular molecule. Heparin affects the bioavailability and biological activity of extracellular Tat (Rusnati, M., Coltrini, D., Oreste, P., Zoppetti, G., Albini, A., Noonan, D., D'Adda di Fagagna, F., Giacca, M., and Presta, M. (1997) J. Biol. Chem. 272, 11313-11320). Here, a series of homogeneously sized, (3)H-labeled heparin fragments were evaluated for their capacity to bind to free glutathione S-transferase (GST)-Tat protein and to immobilized GST-Tat. Hexasaccharides represent the minimum sized heparin fragments able to interact with GST-Tat at physiological ionic strength. Also, the affinity of binding increases with increasing the molecular size of the oligosaccharides, with large fragments (>/=18 saccharides) approaching the affinity of full-size heparin. 6-Mer heparin binds GST-Tat with a dissociation constant (K(d)) equal to 0.7 +/- 0.4 microM and a molar oligosaccharide:GST-Tat ratio of about 1:1. Interaction of GST-Tat with 22-mer or full-size heparin is consistent instead with two-component binding. At subsaturating concentrations, a single molecule of heparin interacts with 4-6 molecules of GST-Tat with high affinity (K(d) values in the nanomolar range of concentration); at saturating concentrations, heparin binds GST-Tat with lower affinity (K(d) values in the micromolar range of concentration) and a molar oligosaccharide:GST-Tat ratio of about 1:1. In agreement with the binding data, a positive correlation exists between the size of heparin oligosaccharides and their capacity to inhibit cell internalization, long terminal repeat-transactivating activity of extracellular Tat in HL3T1 cells, and its mitogenic activity in murine adenocarcinoma T53 Tat-less cells. The data demonstrate that the modality of heparin-Tat interaction is strongly affected by the size of the saccharide chain. The possibility of establishing multiple interactions increases the affinity of large heparin fragments for Tat protein and the capacity of the glycosaminoglycan to modulate the biological activity of extracellular Tat.

Interaction of HIV-1 Tat protein with heparin. Role of the backbone structure, sulfation, and size.

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) Tat protein is released from infected cells. Extracellular Tat enters the cell where it stimulates the transcriptional activity of HIV-long terminal repeat (LTR) and of endogenous genes. Heparin modulates the angiogenic (Albini, A., Benelli, R., Presta, M., Rusnati, M., Ziche, M., Rubartelli, A., Paglialunga, G., Bussolino, F., and Noonan, D. (1996) Oncogene 12, 289-297) and transcriptional (Mann, D. A., and Frankel, A. D. (1991) EMBO J. 10, 1733-1739) activity of extracellular Tat. Here we demonstrate that heparin binds specifically to recombinant HIV-1 Tat produced as glutathione S-transferase (GST) fusion protein and immobilized on glutathione-agarose beads. Heparin and heparan sulfate (HS), but not dermatan sulfate, chondroitin sulfates A and C, hyaluronic acid, and K5 polysaccharide, competed with 3H-labeled heparin for binding to immobilized GST-Tat and inhibited HIV-LTR transactivation induced by extracellular GST-Tat. Selective 2-O-, 6-O-, total-O-desulfation, or N-desulfation/N-acetylation dramatically reduced the capacity of heparin to bind GST-Tat. Totally-O-desulfated and 2-O-desulfated heparins also showed a reduced capacity to inhibit the transactivating activity of GST-Tat. Very low molecular weight heparins showed a significant decrease in their capacity to bind GST-Tat and to inhibit its LTR transactivating activity when compared with conventional 13.6-kDa heparin. However, when 3.0-kDa heparin was affinity chromatographed on immobilized GST-Tat to isolate binding and non-binding subfractions, the Tat-bound fraction was >/=1,000 times more potent than the unbound fraction in inhibiting the transactivating activity of GST-Tat. The results demonstrate that Tat interacts in a size-dependent manner with heparin/HS and that high affinity Tat-heparin interaction requires at least some 2-O-, 6-O-, and N-positions to be sulfated. The Tat binding activity of the glycosaminoglycans tested correlates with their capacity to affect the transactivating activity of extracellular Tat, indicating the possibility to design specific heparin/HS-like structures with Tat-antagonist activity.

Characterization of insulin autoantibodies in a patient with autoimmune hypoglycemia.

A 60-year-old man referred because of hypoglycemic bouts was found to have insulin autoantibodies. Total plasma insulin was as high as 1.44 nmol/l. Both plasma free insulin and C-peptide were in the normal range. The indirect immunofluorescence technique showed positivity for antinuclear antibodies. The T-lymphocyte populations in the peripheral blood were normal. When serum binding capacity for pork insulin was measured, antibodies binding pork insulin were not detected. The patient's serum bound 125I-insulin. The binding protein was identified to be an immunoglobulin G. The kinetics of dissociation, studied by the Scatchard analysis of the autoantibody, showed a curvilinear plot, which was analyzed in two components. Cold human insulin was able to compete with 125I-insulin for the antibody binding site (I.C.50 = 1.35 nmol/ml). These antibodies were apparently not associated with antibodies directed against the insulin receptor.

Different effects of mucosal, bovine lung and chemically modified heparin on selected biological properties of basic fibroblast growth factor.

Heparins from bovine mucosa and lung, and chemically modified heparins were assayed for their capacity to: (i) protect human recombinant basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) from tryptic cleavage; (ii) prevent 125I-bFGF binding to heparan sulphate proteoglycans present in the extracellular matrix and on the cell surface of fetal bovine aortic endothelial GM 7373 cell cultures; (iii) affect 125I-bFGF binding to high-affinity tyrosine kinase FGF receptors present on the cell membrane of GM 7373 cells; (iv) inhibit the mitogenic activity exerted by bFGF in the same cells. The results demonstrate that the potency shown by mucosal heparins in the different assays is a direct function of size, very-low-molecular-mass heparin (2.0 kDa) being significantly less effective on a molar basis than unfractionated heparin (13.6 kDa). Increased flexibility of the backbone structure, as observed in reduced/oxidized heparins of different size, does not affect the capacity of the polysaccharide to interact with bFGF. In contrast, selective 2-O-desulphation, but not 6-O-desulphation, drastically reduced the capacity of heparin to protect bFGF from proteolytic cleavage, to affect its interaction with low- and high-affinity sites, and to inhibit its mitogenic activity. Two preparations of bovine lung heparin, differing in molecular mass, were as effective as mucosal heparin in the bFGF-tryptic-digestion assay and the endothelial-cell proteoglycan-binding assay, but they were highly inefficient at inhibiting the capacity of bFGF to interact with its tyrosine kinase receptors. Bovine lung heparins were also less effective than mucosal heparin as bFGF antagonists in GM 7373-cell-proliferation assays. N-Desulphated/N-acetylated bovine lung heparin retained only a significant capacity to protect bFGF from tryptic cleavage. The results demonstrate that different chemical features of the heparin molecule, including decrease in molecular mass, selective desulphation, disaccharide composition and clustering, affect differently the capacity of the glycosaminoglycan to interact with bFGF and to influence its biological behaviour in different assays in vitro and in endothelial cell cultures. Our findings should aid the design of synthetic oligosaccharides aimed at improving the bioavailability of bFGF when administered in vivo as a therapeutic agent.

Heparin-like compounds prepared by chemical modification of capsular polysaccharide from E. coli K5.

O-Sulfation of sulfaminoheparosan SAH, a glycosaminoglucuronan with the structure-->4)-beta-D-GlcA(1-->4)-beta-D-GlcNSO3(-)-(1-->, obtained by N-deacetylation and N-sulfation of the capsular polysaccharide from E. coli K5, was investigated in order to characterize the sulfation pattern eliciting heparin-like activities. SAH was reacted (as the tributylammonium salt in N,N-dimethylformamide) with pyridine-sulfur trioxide under systematically different experimental conditions. The structure of O-sulfated products (SAHS), as determined by mono- and two-dimensional 1H and 13C NMR, varied with variation of reaction parameters. Sulfation of SAH preferentially occurred at O-6 of the GlcNSO3- residues. Further sulfation occurred either at O-3 or at O-2 of the GlcA residues, depending on the experimental conditions. Products with significantly high affinity for antithrombin and antifactor Xa activity were obtained under well-defined conditions. These products contained the trisulfated aminosugar GlcNSO3-3,6SO3-, which is a marker component of the pentasaccharide sequence through which heparin binds to antithrombin.

Distinct role of 2-O-, N-, and 6-O-sulfate groups of heparin in the formation of the ternary complex with basic fibroblast growth factor and soluble FGF receptor-1.

Interaction of basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) with heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) plays an important role in the binding of bFGF to its tyrosine kinase receptor (FGFR). The molecular bases of this interaction were investigated by evaluating the capacity of conventional and selectively desulfated heparins i) to affect the binding of bFGF to FGFR and HSPGs of NIH 3T3 cells transfected with FGFR-1/flg cDNA, ii) to facilitate the interaction of bFGF with a recombinant soluble form of the extracellular domain of FGFR-1/flg (xcFGFR-1), and iii) to protect xcFGFR-1 from tryptic cleavage. 6-O-desulfated (6-O-DS) heparin, but not 2-O-desulfated (2-O-DS) and N-desulfated/N-acetylated (N-DS/N-Ac) heparins, retains the capacity to bind bFGF, as assessed by its ability to inhibit bFGF-binding to cell-associated FGFR-1 and HSPGs. On the other hand, at variance with conventional heparin, 2-O-DS, N-DS/N-Ac, and 6-O-DS heparins are all ineffective in potentiating the binding of bFGF to xcFGFR-1 and protecting xcFGFR-1 from tryptic cleavage. The data indicate that 6-O-sulfate groups are not essential for the interaction of heparin with bFGF but are involved in the interaction with xcFGFR-1. Our findings support the hypothesis that HSPGs modulate the binding of bFGF to FGFR through the formation of a ternary complex in which the glycosaminoglycan chains interact with bFGF via 2-O- and N-sulfate groups and with FGFR also via 6-O-sulfate groups.

Anti-HIV type 1 properties of chemically modified heparins with diminished anticoagulant activity.

Several groups have reported that sulfated polysaccharides are potent and selective in vitro inhibitors of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1); however, their therapeutic application is limited by their anticoagulant activity. In view of possible improvements in therapeutic potential, a number of heparin derivatives with reduced anticoagulant activity were studied for their inhibitory activity of an HIV-dependent syncytium formation assay, in comparison with standard anionic polysaccharides, such as sodium heparin, dextran sulfate, and heparin sulfate. The chemical modifications introduced in the heparin molecule included succinylation of desulfated N groups (Suc-H), exhaustive periodate oxidation and reduction (RO-H), and controlled nitrous acid degradation (LMW-H). The most pronounced anti-HIV activity was observed with RO-H, Suc30-H (standard heparin, 30% succinylated), and Suc100-LMW-H (low molecular weight heparin, 100% succinylated); the latter retained only 5% of the anticoagulant activity of standard heparin, whereas RO-H and Suc30-H retained approximately 35% of the anticoagulant activity of standard heparin. A safety ratio (arbitrary units of anti-HIV activity per anticoagulant international unit) was calculated: by this parameter, RO-H, Suc30-H, and Suc100-LMW-H were, respectively, 48-, 3.6-, and 1644-fold more safe than standard heparin.

Detection of the low molecular weight heparin component of ITF 1300 in urines after intranasal administration to dogs.

GAGs were purified from urine of dogs after intranasal administration of 40 mg/kg ITF 1300. The electrophoretic patterns of urine GAGs in acidic buffer showed the presence of heparin together with chondroitins, heparan sulfate, and hyaluronic acid. The heparin present in urines was purified using chondroitinase ABC, and its purity was tested by electrophoresis in acidic buffer. The sample obtained was characterized by 13C-NMR, showing the same characteristic signals of the heparin starting material.

Immunolike growth hormone substance in tissues from human embryos/fetuses and adults.

GH immunolike reactivity was measured by RIA and IRMA tests in the extracts of tissues from human fetuses (8-32 weeks) and adults. For some fetal tissues a comparison was made with the T4 values obtained in a previous study. Both hormones were already measurable in peripheral tissues at 8 weeks of gestation. The increase in GH was faster than for T4 and it reached the zenith at approximately 20 weeks; thereafter, the GH concentration declined until delivery. In contrast, T4 progressively increased until term. Thirteen tissues were studied both in fetuses and in adults: the GH concentration was about 10 times higher in fetal tissues, with the exception of the brain and the pancreas. The brain showed the lowest GH concentration throughout fetal life and adulthood, whereas the highest GH levels were recorded in adults' pancreas, but they resulted to be artifacts since the RIA values were not confirmed by the IRMA test. In both groups of subjects the highest GH concentrations were found in kidneys, liver and small intestine; the lowest, beyond the brain, in red muscle and cartilage. Thus, the pattern of the quantitative distribution of GH in fetal tissues is the same as in adults, suggesting a functional role of the hormone in the developing human during the prenatal period, in contrast with the concept that high tissue levels of GH are a mere reflection of high GH blood levels. Moreover, in all tissues examined no correlation was found between GH and T4 concentration.

Biochemical bases of the interaction of human basic fibroblast growth factor with glycosaminoglycans. New insights from trypsin digestion studies.

In the present study we have attempted a characterization of the biochemical bases of the interaction of human basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) with glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) in solution. This interaction has been evidenced as the capacity of different GAGs and various sulfated compounds to protect bFGF and different bFGF mutants from tryptic cleavage. Heparin protects bFGF from trypsin digestion in a dose-dependent fashion. Substitution by site-directed mutagenesis of two or more basic residues with neutral glutamine residues in the amino-terminal region bFGF(27-32) or in the carboxyl-terminal region bFGF(118-129) does not significantly affect the protective effect exerted by heparin. In contrast, heparin protection is abolished when the full region bFGF(27-32) is deleted. The capacity of different GAGs to protect bFGF from proteolytic cleavage decreases in the following order: heparin > heparan sulfate > dermatan sulfate = chondroitin sulfates A and C > hyaluronic acid = K5 polysaccharide, indicating that both the degree of sulfation and the backbone structure of GAG modulate its interaction with bFGF. This is confirmed by the different capacity of various sulfated compounds (including dextran sulfates, suramin, trypan blue, and sulfate ion) to protect bFGF from tryptic digestion. Moreover, tryptic digestion studies performed with various heparin molecules and dextran sulfates of different size, ranging from 2.0 kDa to 500 kDa, indicate that the number of bFGF molecules which interact with a single molecule of polysaccharide is related to the molecular mass of the GAG and that six hexose residues are sufficient to protect 1-2 molecules bFGF. In conclusion, our findings indicate that the capacity of GAGs to protect bFGF from tryptic cleavage depends upon their size, sulfation, distribution of the anionic sites along the chain, and structural requirements of the bFGF molecule. These studies will help to design synthetic oligosaccharides endowed with different bFGF agonist and/or antagonist activities.

Structural requirements for duodenal permeability of heparin-diamine complexes.

We have compared the physico-chemical behaviors alone and in the presence of a synthetic bilayer membrane, in aqueous solution and the bioavailability after intraduodenal administration to rabbits, of the two heparin diamine salts ITF-300 and ITF-331 with those of the heparin-amine salt ITF-1175. The three salts have similar structures but different characteristics of compounds tend to form aggregates in solution, but at different critical concentrations. The compounds induce fusion of single-walled vesicles of a synthetic peptide lipid into multi-walled lamellae. The minimal concentrations of the compounds required for the formation of such lamellae differ. This behavior in solution explains the differences in absorption in the animal model. This makes it possible to correlate enhanced heparin bioavailability with the structural nature of the diamine counter-ions used to prepare heparin salts.

Hormonal profiles in Italian late-onset adrenal hyperplasia correlate with HLA class III polymorphisms.

To investigate the genetic polymorphisms of the HLA region in late-onset adrenal hyperplasia, 13 Italian patients affected by the disease were analyzed for: (1) HLA-A and -B typing; (2) restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) of DR beta, DQ beta, DQ alpha, 21-hydroxylase A and B genes; (3) fourth complement fraction loci A and B (C4A and C4B), second complement fraction (C2) and properdin B factor (Bf) complement typing; (4) hormonal characteristics associated with some HLA haplotypes. HLA alleles B14 and DR beta 1 were found to be significantly more frequent in patients with respect to controls (relative risk: 8.7 and 7.2, p less than 0.001 and p less than 0.0001, respectively). Also C4B*2, 1 duplication was more frequent in patients than in normal subjects (23% vs. 1.5%, p less than 0.0001). Moreover, patients carrying a duplicated C4B (as well as those having the B14 antigen) showed higher 17-hydroxyprogesterone levels after ACTH stimulation. RFLP analysis of 21-hydroxylase genes with a specific probe revealed a duplication of 21-hydroxylase A gene in 40% of patients. All these individuals carried the C4A*2 B*2,1 phenotype and 75% of them displayed a clearly recognizable duplication at the C4B locus. These data support the hypothesis that in late-onset adrenal hyperplasia the 21-hydroxylase A pseudogene, even if inactive, may play a negative role in the regulation of 21-hydroxylase biosynthesis. Furthermore, we suggest analyzing class III phenotypes to screen the enzymatic defect.

Intraduodenal absorption in the rabbit of a novel heparin salt.

The intraduodenal absorption of a new low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) diamine salt (ITF 1331) was compared with the parent compound ITF 1060 and with sodium LMWH, in anaesthetized rabbits. The administration of either salt, but not of sodium LMWH, resulted in a dose-related increase in plasma anti-Xa activity. In this respect ITF 1331 was slightly superior to ITF 1060, and in acute-toxicity studies the counterion itself (ITF 258) was less toxic than that in ITF 1060 (counterion No. 4). These data confirm that a tertiary diamine within the counterion is an important structural requirement for the bioavailability of heparin by the intraduodenal route, and suggest that ITF 1331 may represent an important advance in the search for an oral heparin.

Heparin by alternative routes of administration.

In a study investigating the bioavailability of heparin administered by different routes, we also compared its bioavailability in the dog after oral administration of two enteric-coated formulations, one containing a heparin preparation (ITF-300) and the other sodium heparin. After administration of the formulation containing sodium heparin, there was no heparin in plasma, but when the formulation containing ITF-300 was given, plasma heparin levels were detectable.