Pre-treatment predictors of cognitive side-effects after treatment with electroconvulsive therapy in patients with depression: A multicenter study.

BACKGROUND: Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is a highly effective treatment for major depressive episodes (MDE). However, ECT-induced cognitive side-effects remain a concern. Identification of pre-treatment predictors that contribute to these side-effects remain unclear. We examined cognitive performance and individual cognitive profiles over time (up to six months) following ECT and investigated possible pre-treatment clinical and demographic predictors of cognitive decline shortly after ECT. METHODS: 634 patients with MDE from five sites were included with recruitment periods between 2001 and 2020. Linear mixed models were used to examine how cognitive performance, assessed with an extensive neuropsychological test battery, evolved over time following ECT. Next, possible pre-treatment predictors of cognitive side-effects directly after ECT were examined using linear regression. RESULTS: Directly after ECT, only verbal fluency (animal and letter; p < 0.0001; Cohen's d: -0.25 and -0.29 respectively) and verbal recall (p < 0.0001; Cohen's d: -0.26) significantly declined. However, during three and six months of follow-up, cognitive performance across all domains significantly improved, even outperforming baseline levels. No other pre-treatment factor than a younger age predicted a larger deterioration in cognitive performance shortly after ECT. LIMITATIONS: There was a substantial amount of missing data especially at 6 months follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings show that verbal fluency and memory retention are temporarily affected immediately after ECT. Younger patients may be more susceptible to experiencing these acute cognitive side-effects, which seems to be mostly due to a more intact cognitive functioning prior to ECT. These findings could contribute to decision-making regarding treatment selection, psychoeducation, and guidance during an ECT course.

Development and validation of a multimodal neuroimaging biomarker for electroconvulsive therapy outcome in depression: a multicenter machine learning analysis.

BACKGROUND: Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is the most effective intervention for patients with treatment resistant depression. A clinical decision support tool could guide patient selection to improve the overall response rate and avoid ineffective treatments with adverse effects. Initial small-scale, monocenter studies indicate that both structural magnetic resonance imaging (sMRI) and functional MRI (fMRI) biomarkers may predict ECT outcome, but it is not known whether those results can generalize to data from other centers. The objective of this study was to develop and validate neuroimaging biomarkers for ECT outcome in a multicenter setting. METHODS: Multimodal data (i.e. clinical, sMRI and resting-state fMRI) were collected from seven centers of the Global ECT-MRI Research Collaboration (GEMRIC). We used data from 189 depressed patients to evaluate which data modalities or combinations thereof could provide the best predictions for treatment remission (HAM-D score ⩽7) using a support vector machine classifier. RESULTS: Remission classification using a combination of gray matter volume and functional connectivity led to good performing models with average 0.82-0.83 area under the curve (AUC) when trained and tested on samples coming from the three largest centers (N = 109), and remained acceptable when validated using leave-one-site-out cross-validation (0.70-0.73 AUC). CONCLUSIONS: These results show that multimodal neuroimaging data can be used to predict remission with ECT for individual patients across different treatment centers, despite significant variability in clinical characteristics across centers. Future development of a clinical decision support tool applying these biomarkers may be feasible.

Accelerated intermittent theta burst stimulation in major depressive disorder: A systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Major depressive disorder [MDD] is expected to be the leading cause of overall global burden of disease by the year 2030 [WHO]. Non-response to first line pharmacological and psychotherapeutic antidepressive treatments is substantial, with treatment-resistant depression [TRD] affecting approximately one third of depressed patients. There is an urgent need for rapid acting and effective treatments in this population. Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation [rTMS] is an non-invasive treatment option for patients with MDD or TRD. Recent studies have proposed new paradigms of TMS, one paradigm is accelerated intermittent Theta Burst Stimulation [aiTBS]. OBJECTIVE: This systematic review assesses the efficacy, safety and tolerability of aiTBS in patients with MDD. METHODS: This review was registered with PROSPERO [ID number: 366556]. A systematic literature review was performed using Pubmed, Web of Science and PsycINFO. Case reports/series, open-label and randomized controlled trials [RCTs] were eligible for inclusion if they met the following criteria; full text publication available in English describing a form of aiTBS for MDD or TRD. aiTBS was defined as at least three iTBS treatments sessions per day, during at least four days for one week. RESULTS: 32 studies were identified describing aiTBS in MDD, 13 studies described overlapping samples. Six articles from five unique studies met eligibility criteria; two open-label studies and three RCTs [two double blind and one quadruple blind]. Response rates directly after treatment ranged from 20.0% to 86.4% and remission rates ranged from 10.0 to 86.4%. Four weeks after treatment response rates ranged from 0.0% to 66.7% and remission rates ranged from 0.0% to 57.1%. Three articles described a significant reduction in suicidality scores. aiTBS was well tolerated and safe, with no serious adverse events reported. CONCLUSIONS: aiTBS is a promising form of non-invasive brain stimulation [NIBS] with rapid antidepressant and antisuicidal effects in MDD. Additionally, aiTBS was well tolerated and safe. However, the included studies had small samples sizes and differed in frequency, intersession interval, neuro localization and stimulation intensity. Replication studies and larger RCTs are warranted to establish efficacy, safety and long term effects.

Effective resting-state connectivity in severe unipolar depression before and after electroconvulsive therapy.

BACKGROUND: Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is one of the most effective treatments for severe depressive disorders. A recent multi-center study found no consistent changes in correlation-based (undirected) resting-state connectivity after ECT. Effective (directed) connectivity may provide more insight into the working mechanism of ECT. OBJECTIVE: We investigated whether there are consistent changes in effective resting-state connectivity. METHODS: This multi-center study included data from 189 patients suffering from severe unipolar depression and 59 healthy control participants. Longitudinal data were available for 81 patients and 24 healthy controls. We used dynamic causal modeling for resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging to determine effective connectivity in the default mode, salience and central executive networks before and after a course of ECT. Bayesian general linear models were used to examine differences in baseline and longitudinal effective connectivity effects associated with ECT and its effectiveness. RESULTS: Compared to controls, depressed patients showed many differences in effective connectivity at baseline, which varied according to the presence of psychotic features and later treatment outcome. Additionally, effective connectivity changed after ECT, which was related to ECT effectiveness. Notably, treatment effectiveness was associated with decreasing and increasing effective connectivity from the posterior default mode network to the left and right insula, respectively. No effects were found using correlation-based (undirected) connectivity. CONCLUSIONS: A beneficial response to ECT may depend on how brain regions influence each other in networks important for emotion and cognition. These findings further elucidate the working mechanisms of ECT and may provide directions for future non-invasive brain stimulation research.

The Cortisol Awakening Response as a Biomarker for Cognitive Side-Effects of Electroconvulsive Therapy.

OBJECTIVE: To test whether the cortisol awakening response (CAR) could be a biomarker for cognitive decline during electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). METHODS: We studied 50 older patients with depression who were treated with ECT from the MODECT cohort. We used linear regression analyses to examine the association between CAR and cognitive change, assessed by the change in Mini Mental State Examination scores between baseline and 1 week after ECT course. CAR was assessed by the area under the curve of cortisol levels, according to Pruessner's-formula. Associations were adjusted for putative confounders, based on previous literature and availability. RESULTS: We found no significant associations between the CAR and cognitive change during the ECT course in (un)adjusted models. CONCLUSION: Our results indicate that the CAR is not usable as a biomarker for ECT-induced cognitive decline during ECT course. Further research in cohorts with larger samples is needed.

BrainAge of patients with severe late-life depression referred for electroconvulsive therapy.

BACKGROUND: Severe depression is associated with accelerated brain aging. BrainAge gap, the difference between predicted and observed BrainAge, was investigated in patients with late-life depression (LLD). We aimed to examine BrainAge gap in LLD and its associations with clinical characteristics indexing LLD chronicity, current severity, prior to electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) and ECT outcome. METHODS: Data was analyzed from the Mood Disorders in Elderly treated with Electroconvulsive Therapy (MODECT) study. A previously established BrainAge algorithm (BrainAge R by James Cole, (https://github.com/james-cole/brainageR)) was applied to pre-ECT T1-weighted structural MRI-scans of 42 patients who underwent ECT. RESULTS: A BrainAge gap of 1.8 years (SD = 5.5) was observed, Cohen's d = 0.3. No significant associations between BrainAge gap, number of previous episodes, current episode duration, age of onset, depression severity, psychotic symptoms or ECT outcome were observed. LIMITATIONS: Limited sample size. CONCLUSIONS: Our initial findings suggest an older BrainAge than chronological age in patients with severe LLD referred for ECT, however with high degree of variability and direction of the gap. No associations were found with clinical measures. Larger samples are needed to better understand brain aging and to evaluate the usability of BrainAge gap as potential biomarker of prognosis an treatment-response in LLD. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT02667353.

Rivastigmine for ECT-induced cognitive adverse effects in late life depression (RECALL study): A multicenter, randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over trial in patients with depression aged 55 years or older: Rationale, objectives and methods.

Background: Cognitive side-effects are an important reason for the limited use of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Cognitive side-effects are heterogeneous and occur frequently in older persons. To date, insight into these side-effects is hampered due to inconsistencies in study designs and small sample sizes. Among all cognitive side-effects, confusion and delirious states are especially troublesome for patients, relatives and clinicians. In particular inter-ictal delirium-like states are worrisome, since they may lead to premature treatment discontinuation. Besides a need for further insight into determinants of cognitive side-effects of ECT, there is a great need for treatment options. Methods and design: The Rivastigmine for ECT-induced Cognitive Adverse effects in Late Life depression (RECALL) study combines a multicenter, prospective cohort study on older patients with depression, treated with ECT, with an embedded randomized, placebo-controlled cross-over trial to examine the effect of rivastigmine on inter-ictal delirium. Patients are recruited in four centers across the Netherlands and Belgium. We aim to include 150 patients into the cohort study, in order to be able to subsequently include 30 patients into the trial. Patients are included in the trial when inter-ictal delirium, assessed by the Confusion Assessment method (CAM), or a drop in Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE) score of ≥4 during ECT, develops. In the cohort study, comprehensive measurements of ECT-related cognitive side-effects-and their putative determinants-are done at baseline and during the ECT-course. The primary outcome of the clinical trial is the effectiveness of rivastigmine on inter-ictal delirium-severity, assessed with a change in the Delirium Rating Scale-Revised-98. Secondary outcomes of the clinical trial are several ECT-characteristics and side-effects of rivastigmine. Discussion: This study is the first clinical trial with a focus on ECT-induced, inter-ictal delirium. The cohort provides the basis for recruitment of patients for the cross-over trial and additionally provides an excellent opportunity to unravel cognitive side-effects of ECT and identify putative determinants. This paper describes the rationale and study protocol. Clinical trial registration: EudraCT 2014-003385-24.

Which residual symptoms predict relapse after successful electroconvulsive therapy for late-life depression?

The risk of relapse following successful acute-phase treatment of late-life depression (LLD), including electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), is substantial. In order to improve reliable prediction of individuals' risk of relapse, we assessed the association between individual residual symptoms following a successful acute course of ECT for LLD and relapse at six-month follow-up. This prospective cohort study was part of the MODECT study, which included 110 patients aged 55 years and older with major depressive disorder. Participants who showed response to the index ECT course were monitored for relapse for six months. We used multivariable stepwise logistic regression models to assess the association between the scores on the 10 individual Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) items at the end of the acute ECT course and relapse at six-month follow-up. Of the 80 responders with available six-month follow-up data (58.75% of which had psychotic features at baseline), 36.25% had relapsed. Higher scores on the MADRS items 'reduced sleep' (odds ratio (OR) = 2.03, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.11-3.69, p = 0.0214) and 'lassitude' (OR = 1.62, 95% CI = 1.00-2.62, p = 0.0497) at the end of the acute ECT course were significantly associated with increased risk of relapse at six-month follow-up. In conclusion, some residual depressive symptoms, including sleep disturbance and lassitude, may help better identify patients vulnerable to relapse following a successful acute course of ECT for LLD. If these findings can be replicated, studies assessing interventions that target specific residual symptoms may further reduce post-ECT depressive relapse rates.

Remission Rates Following Electroconvulsive Therapy and Relation to Index Episode Duration in Patients With Psychotic Versus Nonpsychotic Late-Life Depression.

Objective: Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is a safe and effective treatment, especially in psychotic late-life depression (LLD). However, it is not yet clear whether the greater efficacy seen in psychotic LLD is because of a shorter index episode duration. The first aim of this study was to substantiate the superior ECT remission rates in patients with psychotic LLD, as compared to patients with nonpsychotic LLD, and a second aim was to investigate whether this association is independent of the index duration.Methods: 186 patients with LLD treated with ECT were included in the study: 76 from the Valerius cohort (data collection from 2001 to 2006) and 110 from the Mood Disorders Treated with Electroconvulsive Therapy (MODECT) cohort (data collection from 2011 to 2013). The Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) was used to evaluate depression severity, with remission defined as 2 consecutive MADRS scores < 10. Diagnosis of depression was based on DSM-IV (Valerius) and DSM-IV-TR (MODECT) criteria. A stepwise logistic regression model was built to assess the association between psychotic symptoms, index duration, and remission.Results: Patients with psychotic LLD showed significantly higher remission rates compared to patients with nonpsychotic LLD (68.9% vs 51.0%), independent of index duration, additionally corrected for age, sex, and baseline depression severity (OR = 2.10 [95% CI, 1.07-4.10], P = .03).Conclusions: Patients with psychotic LLD treated with ECT show higher remission rates compared to patients with nonpsychotic LLD. The high remission rates in patients with psychotic LLD are not explained by a shorter index duration. Future studies focusing on neurobiological differences in psychotic versus nonpsychotic depression may indicate why this subtype of depression is very responsive to ECT.Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT02667353.

Long-term Outcome Following Electroconvulsive Therapy for Late-Life Depression: Five-Year Follow-up Data From the MODECT Study.

OBJECTIVE: Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is the most effective treatment for late-life depression (LLD). Research addressing long-term outcome following an acute course of ECT for LLD is limited. We aimed to describe relapse, cognitive impairment and survival 5 years after a treatment with ECT for severe LLD, and assess the association of clinical characteristics with all three outcome measures. METHODS: This cohort study was part of the Mood Disorders in Elderly treated with ECT (MODECT) study, which included patients aged 55 years and older with major depressive disorder. Data regarding clinical course, cognitive impairment and mortality were collected 5 years after the index ECT course. We used multivariable Cox proportional hazards models and logistic regression models to assess the association of clinical characteristics with relapse and survival, and cognitive impairment, respectively. RESULTS: We studied 110 patients with a mean age of 72.9 years. 67.1% of patients who showed response at the end of the index ECT course relapsed, and the included clinical characteristics were not significantly associated with the risk of relapse. 38.8% of patients with available data showed cognitive impairment at five-year follow-up. 27.5% were deceased; higher age and a higher number of previous psychiatric admissions were significantly associated with increased risk of mortality. CONCLUSIONS: Five-year outcome after a course of ECT for severe LLD seems to be in line with long-term outcome following other acute treatments for severe LLD in terms of relapse, cognitive impairment and survival. Additional studies aimed at improving long-term outcome in severe LLD are warranted.

rTMS combined with CBT as a next step in antidepressant non-responders: a study protocol for a randomized comparison with current antidepressant treatment approaches.

BACKGROUND: Major depressive disorder (MDD) is one of the most common psychiatric disorders, however, current treatment options are insufficiently effective for about 35% of patients, resulting in treatment-resistant depression (TRD). Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is a form of non-invasive neuromodulation that is effective in treating TRD. Not much is known about the comparative efficacy of rTMS and other treatments and their timing within the treatment algorithm, making it difficult for the treating physician to establish when rTMS is best offered as a treatment option. This study aims to investigate the (cost-)effectiveness of rTMS (in combination with cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and continued antidepressant medication), compared to the next step in the treatment algorithm. This will be done in a sample of patients with treatment resistant non-psychotic unipolar depression. METHODS: In this pragmatic multicenter randomized controlled trial 132 patients with MDD are randomized to either rTMS or the next pharmacological step within the current treatment protocol (a switch to a tricyclic antidepressant or augmentation with lithium or a second-generation antipsychotic). Both groups also receive CBT. The trial consists of 8 weeks of unblinded treatment followed by follow-up of the cohort at four and 6 months. A subgroup of patients (n = 92) will have an extended follow-up at nine and 12 months to assess effect decay or retention. We expect that rTMS is more (cost-)effective than medication in reducing depressive symptoms in patients with TRD. We will also explore the effects of both treatments on symptoms associated with depression, e.g. anhedonia and rumination, as well as the effect of expectations regarding the treatments on its effectiveness. DISCUSSION: The present trial aims to inform clinical decision making about whether rTMS should be considered as a treatment option in patients with TRD. The results may improve treatment outcomes in patients with TRD and may facilitate adoption of rTMS in the treatment algorithm for depression and its implementation in clinical practice. TRIAL REGISTRATION: This trial is registered within the Netherlands Trial Register (code: NL7628 , date: March 29th 2019).

Impact of Inflammation on Cognitive Functioning After Electroconvulsive Therapy in Older Patients with Depression with and Without White Matter Hyperintensities.

OBJECTIVE: Should we treat older, patients with depression with white matter hyperintensities (WMH) with electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)? WMH, inflammation, depression and cognitive functioning are suggested to be intertwined. Hence, this study investigates whether the association between inflammation and cognition is different in patients with depression with or without WMH. METHODS: Cognitive functioning was assessed using the Mini-Mental State Examination during and after a course of ECT in 77 older patients with depression. Serum samples (C-reactive protein [CRP], interleukin-6 [IL-6], interleukin-10 [IL-10] and tumour necrosis factor-alpha [TNF-α]) and 3T magnetic resonance imaging were obtained prior to ECT. RESULTS: An interaction effect was found for IL-10, but not for CRP, IL-6 or TNF-α. CONCLUSION: In general, the association between inflammatory markers and cognition in patients with depression treated with ECT is not different in patients with WMH compared to patients without WMH.

Neural Substrates of Psychotic Depression: Findings From the Global ECT-MRI Research Collaboration.

Psychotic major depression (PMD) is hypothesized to be a distinct clinical entity from nonpsychotic major depression (NPMD). However, neurobiological evidence supporting this notion is scarce. The aim of this study is to identify gray matter volume (GMV) differences between PMD and NPMD and their longitudinal change following electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data from 8 independent sites in the Global ECT-MRI Research Collaboration (GEMRIC) database (n = 108; 56 PMD and 52 NPMD; mean age 71.7 in PMD and 70.2 in NPMD) were analyzed. All participants underwent MRI before and after ECT. First, cross-sectional whole-brain voxel-wise GMV comparisons between PMD and NPMD were conducted at both time points. Second, in a flexible factorial model, a main effect of time and a group-by-time interaction were examined to identify longitudinal effects of ECT on GMV and longitudinal differential effects of ECT between PMD and NPMD, respectively. Compared with NPMD, PMD showed lower GMV in the prefrontal, temporal and parietal cortex before ECT; PMD showed lower GMV in the medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC) after ECT. Although there was a significant main effect of time on GMV in several brain regions in both PMD and NPMD, there was no significant group-by-time interaction. Lower GMV in the MPFC was consistently identified in PMD, suggesting this may be a trait-like neural substrate of PMD. Longitudinal effect of ECT on GMV may not explain superior ECT response in PMD, and further investigation is needed.

Interrogating Associations Between Polygenic Liabilities and Electroconvulsive Therapy Effectiveness.

BACKGROUND: Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is the most effective treatment for severe major depressive episodes (MDEs). Nonetheless, firmly established associations between ECT outcomes and biological variables are currently lacking. Polygenic risk scores (PRSs) carry clinical potential, but associations with treatment response in psychiatry are seldom reported. Here, we examined whether PRSs for major depressive disorder, schizophrenia (SCZ), cross-disorder, and pharmacological antidepressant response are associated with ECT effectiveness. METHODS: A total of 288 patients with MDE from 3 countries were included. The main outcome was a change in the 17-item Hamilton Depression Rating Scale scores from before to after ECT treatment. Secondary outcomes were response and remission. Regression analyses with PRSs as independent variables and several covariates were performed. Explained variance (R2) at the optimal p-value threshold is reported. RESULTS: In the 266 subjects passing quality control, the PRS-SCZ was positively associated with a larger Hamilton Depression Rating Scale decrease in linear regression (optimal p-value threshold = .05, R2 = 6.94%, p < .0001), which was consistent across countries: Ireland (R2 = 8.18%, p = .0013), Belgium (R2 = 6.83%, p = .016), and the Netherlands (R2 = 7.92%, p = .0077). The PRS-SCZ was also positively associated with remission (R2 = 4.63%, p = .0018). Sensitivity and subgroup analyses, including in MDE without psychotic features (R2 = 4.42%, p = .0024) and unipolar MDE only (R2 = 9.08%, p < .0001), confirmed the results. The other PRSs were not associated with a change in the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale score at the predefined Bonferroni-corrected significance threshold. CONCLUSIONS: A linear association between PRS-SCZ and ECT outcome was uncovered. Although it is too early to adopt PRSs in ECT clinical decision making, these findings strengthen the positioning of PRS-SCZ as relevant to treatment response in psychiatry.

The ratio and interaction between neurotrophin and immune signaling during electroconvulsive therapy in late-life depression.

BACKGROUND: Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is the most effective treatment for severe late-life depression (LLD), and several hypotheses on the precise working mechanism have been proposed. Preclinical evidence suggests that ECT induces changes in neurotrophin and inflammatory signaling and that these neurotrophic and inflammatory systems affect each other. We examine the relation, interaction, and ratio between the neurotrophic brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and the proinflammatory cytokines interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), and depression severity during ECT. METHODS: In this naturalistic longitudinal study, linear mixed models were used to analyze the relation between BDNF, IL-6, TNF-α, and depression severity (determined by the Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale; MADRS) in 99 patients with severe LLD before ECT (T0), three weeks after the first ECT (T1), and one week after the last ECT (T2). RESULTS: No significant association was found between BDNF, IL-6 and TNF-α, and MADRS scores at any time point. However, a significant interaction between TNF-α and BDNF in relation to MADRS was established (p â€‹= â€‹.020) at all time points. With higher levels of TNF-α, the relation between BDNF and MADRS becomes more negative. Furthermore, a higher ratio of TNF-α/BDNF was associated with a higher score on the MADRS (p â€‹= â€‹.007). CONCLUSION: A possible explanation for the absence of a significant coevolution between the proinflammatory cytokines and BDNF could be that the study design was unable to determine parameters shortly after ECT sessions. However, the TNF-α/BDNF ratio was positively associated with depression severity, and the association of BDNF-level and depression severity depended on the level of TNF-α. This suggests that the interaction and balance between neurotrophin and immune signaling, specifically BDNF and TNF-α, could be relevant in LLD. This could be a focus in future research regarding treatment and the working mechanism of ECT.

Inflammation and Cognitive Functioning in Depressed Older Adults Treated With Electroconvulsive Therapy: A Prospective Cohort Study.

Objective: Despite the effectiveness of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), patients and practitioners are often reluctant to start it due to the risk of transient cognitive side effects, particularly in older patients. Inflammatory processes may be associated with the occurrence of these effects. This study assessed whether inflammatory markers prior to ECT are associated with cognitive functioning in depressed patients treated with ECT.Methods: Between 2011 and 2013, 97 older patients (mean [SD] age = 73.1 [8.1] years) with severe unipolar depression (according to DSM-IV) referred for ECT were included. Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) scores were used to determine cognitive functioning prior to, weekly during, and in the first week after a course of ECT. Serum levels of C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-10 (IL-10), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) were assessed prior to ECT.Results: In fully adjusted models, there was an association between TNF-α and cognitive functioning (ß = -1.05; 95% CI, -2.04 to -0.06; f2 = 0.06). An association was also found between baseline levels of IL-10 and TNF-α and lower MMSE scores during ECT (IL-10: ß = -2.08; 95% CI, -3.22 to -0.95; TNF-α: ß = -0.65; 95% CI, -1.07 to -0.22). In addition, an association was found between baseline CRP and lower MMSE scores directly after a course of ECT (ß = -0.51; 95% CI, -0.93 to -0.09; f2 = 0.10). Associations with IL-6 did not reach significance.Conclusions: This study suggests that inflammatory processes are associated with lower cognitive functioning prior to ECT and predispose for further cognitive dysfunction during and after a course of ECT.Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT02667353.

Elevated body weight modulates subcortical volume change and associated clinical response following electroconvulsive therapy.

Background: Obesity is a frequent somatic comorbidity of major depression, and it has been associated with worse clinical outcomes and brain structural abnormalities. Converging evidence suggests that electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) induces both clinical improvements and increased subcortical grey matter volume in patients with depression. However, it remains unknown whether increased body weight modulates the clinical response and structural neuroplasticity that occur with ECT. Methods: To address this question, we conducted a longitudinal investigation of structural MRI data from the Global ECT-MRI Research Collaboration (GEMRIC) in 223 patients who were experiencing a major depressive episode (10 scanning sites). Structural MRI data were acquired before and after ECT, and we assessed change in subcortical grey matter volume using FreeSurfer and Quarc. Results: Higher body mass index (BMI) was associated with a significantly lower increase in subcortical grey matter volume following ECT. We observed significant negative associations between BMI and change in subcortical grey matter volume, with pronounced effects in the thalamus and putamen, where obese participants showed increases in grey matter volume that were 43.3% and 49.6%, respectively, of the increases found in participants with normal weight. As well, BMI significantly moderated the association between subcortical grey matter volume change and clinical response to ECT. We observed no significant association between BMI and clinical response to ECT. Limitations: Because only baseline BMI values were available, we were unable to study BMI changes during ECT and their potential association with clinical and grey matter volume change. Conclusion: Future studies should take into account the relevance of body weight as a modulator of structural neuroplasticity during ECT treatment and aim to further explore the functional relevance of this novel finding.

The pattern of inflammatory markers during electroconvulsive therapy in older depressed patients.

OBJECTIVES: An association is found between changes in cytokine levels and antidepressant treatment outcome. Also, a proinflammatory profile is associated with a favourable electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) outcome. This paper investigates the pattern of inflammatory markers during a course of ECT in older depressed patients and whether this pattern is associated with ECT outcome. We hypothesised that ECT has an anti-inflammatory effect. METHODS: The pattern of CRP, IL-6, IL-10, and TNF-α during a course of ECT was examined using longitudinal mixed model analyses. Serum samples were collected in 99 older depressed patients (mean age: 72.8 ± 8.3 years, MADRS score 33.8 ± 9.0). RESULTS: After Bonferroni correction, there were no statistically significant alterations in levels of inflammatory markers during and after ECT. Effect sizes (Cohen's d) were -0.29 for CRP, -0.13 for IL-6, -0.06 for IL-10, and -0.07 for TNF-α. Changes in CRP or cytokine levels did not differ between remitters and non-remitters. Median baseline levels of CRP were significantly higher in remitters. CONCLUSIONS: A small to medium effect size towards decreased CRP and IL-6 levels was observed. An anti-inflammatory effect of ECT could not be confirmed. However, the findings may suggest that patients with an inflammatory profile benefit more from ECT than other patients. Further studies are needed to confirm these findings.

Transient Cognitive Impairment and White Matter Hyperintensities in Severely Depressed Older Patients Treated With Electroconvulsive Therapy.

BACKGROUND: Although electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is a safe and effective treatment for patients with severe late life depression (LLD), transient cognitive impairment can be a reason to discontinue the treatment. The aim of the current study was to evaluate the association between structural brain characteristics and general cognitive function during and after ECT. METHODS: A total of 80 patients with LLD from the prospective naturalistic follow-up Mood Disorders in Elderly treated with Electroconvulsive Therapy study were examined. Magnetic resonance imaging scans were acquired before ECT. Overall brain morphology (white and grey matter) was evaluated using visual rating scales. Cognitive functioning before, during, and after ECT was measured using the Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE). A linear mixed-model analysis was performed to analyze the association between structural brain alterations and cognitive functioning over time. RESULTS: Patients with moderate to severe white matter hyperintensities (WMH) showed significantly lower MMSE scores than patients without severe WMH (F(1,75.54) = 5.42, p = 0.02) before, during, and post-ECT, however their trajectory of cognitive functioning was similar as no time × WMH interaction effect was observed (F(4,65.85) = 1.9, p = 0.25). Transient cognitive impairment was not associated with medial temporal or global cortical atrophy (MTA, GCA). CONCLUSION: All patients showed a significant drop in cognitive functioning during ECT, which however recovered above baseline levels post-ECT and remained stable until at least 6 months post-ECT, independently of severity of WMH, GCA, or MTA. Therefore, clinicians should not be reluctant to start or continue ECT in patients with severe structural brain alterations.

Are Apathy and Depressive Symptoms Related to Vascular White Matter Hyperintensities in Severe Late Life Depression?

OBJECTIVE: Apathy symptoms are defined as a lack of interest and motivation. Patients with late-life depression (LLD) also suffer from lack of interest and motivation and previous studies have linked apathy to vascular white matter hyperintensities (WMH) of the brain in depressed and nondepressed patients. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between apathy symptoms, depressive symptoms, and WMH in LLD. We hypothesize that late-onset depression (LOD; first episode of depression after 55 years of age) is associated with WMH and apathy symptoms. METHODS: Apathy scores were collected for 87 inpatients diagnosed with LLD. Eighty patients underwent brain magnetic resonance imaging. Associations between depressive and apathy symptoms and WMH were analyzed using linear regression. RESULTS: All 3 subdomains of the 10-item Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale correlated significantly with the apathy scale score (all P < .05). In the total sample, apathy nor depressive symptoms were related to specific WMH. In LOD only, periventricular WMH were associated with depression severity (ß = 5.21, P = .04), while WMH in the left infratentorial region were associated with apathy symptoms (ß coefficient = 5.89, P = .03). CONCLUSION: Apathy and depressive symptoms are highly overlapping in the current cohort of older patients with severe LLD, leading to the hypothesis that apathy symptoms are part of depressive symptoms in the symptom profile of older patients with severe LLD. Neither apathy nor depressive symptoms were related to WMH, suggesting that radiological markers of cerebrovascular disease, such as WMH, may not be useful in predicting these symptoms in severe LLD.