Disparities in kidney transplantation accessibility among immigrant populations in Europe: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Disparities in access to healthcare for patients with an immigration background are well-known. The aim of this study was to determine whether disparities among immigrant populations translate into a relative difference in the number of kidney transplants (KT) performed in documented immigrant patients (first and second generation) relative to native-born patients in Europe. METHODS: A literature search was performed in PubMed from inception to 11-10-2022. Studies were eligible if: (1) written in English, (2) included immigrant and native-born KT patients, (3) performed in countries registered as Council of Europe members, (4) focused on documented first- and second-generation immigrant populations [1]. Systematic reviews, literature reviews, and case reports or articles about emigration, non-KT, and undocumented immigrants were excluded. The outcome measurement was a relative percentage of KTs to the total population per 100.000 residents. By dividing the immigrant percentages by the native-born resident percentages, the odds ratio (OR) was calculated in a meta-analysis. The risk of bias was assessed; articles with high risk of bias were excluded in a second meta-analysis. RESULTS: Out of 109 articles, 5 were included (n = 24,614). One Italian study (n = 24,174) had a ratio below 1, being 0.910 (95%CI 0.877-0.945). The other four articles (n = 196, n = 283, n = 77, n = 119) had ratios above 1: 1.36 (95%CI 0.980-1.87), 2.04 (95%CI 1.56-2.68), 2.23 (95%CI 1.53-3.25) and 2.64 (95%CI 1.68-4.15). After performing a meta-analysis, the OR did not show a significant difference: 1.68 (95%CI 1.03-2.75). After bias correction, this remained unchanged: 1.78 (95%CI 0.961-3.31). CONCLUSIONS: In our meta-analysis we did not find a significant difference in the relative number of KTs performed in immigrant versus native-born populations in Europe. However, a lesser likelihood for immigrants to receive a pre-emptive kidney transplantation was found. Large heterogeneity between studies (e.g. different sample size, patient origins, study duration, adult vs children patients) was a shortcoming to our analysis. Nevertheless, our article is the first review in this understudied topic. As important questions (e.g. on ethnicity, living donor rate) remain, future studies are needed to address them.

Endothelial Cell Replacement of Human Veins, Modeling Vascular Repair and Endothelial Cell Chimerism.

Allogeneic transplant organs are potentially highly immunogenic. The endothelial cells (ECs) located within the vascular system serve as the primary interface between the recipient's immune system and the donor organ, playing a key role in the alloimmune response. In this study, we investigated the potential use of recipient-derived ECs in a vein recellularization model. In this study, human iliac veins underwent complete decellularization using a Triton X-100 protocol. We demonstrated the feasibility of re-endothelializing acellular blood vessels using either human umbilical cord vein endothelial cell or human venous-derived ECs, with this re- endothelialization being sustainable for up to 28 days in vitro. The re-endothelialized veins exhibited the restoration of vascular barrier function, along with the restoration of innate immunoregulatory capabilities, evident through the facilitation of monocytic cell transmigration and their polarization toward a macrophage phenotype following transendothelial extravasation. Finally, we explored whether recellularization with EC of a different donor could prevent antibody-mediated rejection. We demonstrated that in chimeric vessels, allogeneic EC became a target of the humoral anti-donor response after activation of the classical immune complement pathway whereas autologous EC were spared, emphasizing their potential utility before transplantation. In conclusion, our study demonstrates that replacement of EC in transplants could reduce the immunological challenges associated with allogeneic grafts.

Telemedicine for Kidney Transplant Recipients: Current State, Advantages, and Barriers.

Telemedicine is defined as the use of electronic information and communication technologies to provide and support healthcare at a distance. In kidney transplantation, telemedicine is limited but is expected to grow markedly in the coming y. Current experience shows that it is possible to provide transplant care at a distance, with benefits for patients like reduced travel time and costs, better adherence to medication and appointment visits, more self-sufficiency, and more reliable blood pressure values. However, multiple barriers in different areas need to be overcome for successful implementation, such as recipients' preferences, willingness, skills, and digital literacy. Moreover, in many countries, limited digital infrastructure, legislation, local policy, costs, and reimbursement issues could be barriers to the implementation of telemedicine. Finally, telemedicine changes the way transplant professionals provide care, and this transition needs time, training, willingness, and acceptance. This review discusses the current state and benefits of telemedicine in kidney transplantation, with the aforementioned barriers, and provides an overview of future directions on telemedicine in kidney transplantation.

Monitoring antihypertensive drug concentrations to determine nonadherence in hypertensive patients with or without a kidney transplant.

BACKGROUND: Nonadherence to antihypertensive drugs (AHDs) is a major contributor to pseudo-resistant hypertension. The primary objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of nonadherence to AHDs among patients visiting the nephrology and vascular outpatient clinics. METHODS: Patients were eligible to participate in this prospective observational study if they used at least two AHDs that could be measured with a validated UHPLC-MS/MS method and had an office blood pressure at least 140 and/or at least 90 mmHg. For resistant hypertension, included patients had to use at least three AHDs including a diuretic or four AHDs. Adherence was assessed by measuring drug concentrations in blood. The complete absence of drug in blood was defined as nonadherence. A posthoc analysis was performed to determine the influence of a having a kidney transplant on the adherence rates. RESULTS: One hundred and forty-two patients were included of whom 66 patients fulfilled the definition of resistant hypertension. The overall adherence rate to AHDs was 78.2% ( n  = 111 patients), with the highest adherence rate for irbesartan (100%, n  = 9) and lowest adherence rate for bumetanide ( n  = 69%, n  = 13). In further analysis, only kidney transplantation could be identified as an important factor for adherence (adjusted odds ratio = 3.35; 95% confidence interval 1.23-9.09). A posthoc analysis showed that patients with a kidney transplant were more likely to be adherent to AHDs (non-KT cohort 64.0% vs. KT-cohort 85.7%, χ 2 (2) = 10.34, P  = 0.006). CONCLUSION: The adherence rate to AHDs in hypertensive patients was high (78.2%) and even higher after a kidney transplant (85.7%). Furthermore, patients after kidney transplant had a lower risk of being nonadherent to AHDs.

Additional Normothermic Machine Perfusion Versus Hypothermic Machine Perfusion in Suboptimal Donor Kidney Transplantation: Protocol of a Randomized, Controlled, Open-Label Trial.

INTRODUCTION: Ageing of the general population has led to an increase in the use of suboptimal kidneys from expanded criteria donation after brain death (ECD-DBD) and donation after circulatory death (DCD) donors. However, these kidneys have inferior graft outcomes and lower rates of immediate function. Normothermic machine perfusion (NMP) may improve outcomes of these suboptimal donor kidneys. Previous non-randomized studies have shown the safety of this technique and suggested its efficacy in improving the proportion of immediate functioning kidneys compared to static cold storage (SCS). However, its additional value to hypothermic machine perfusion (HMP), which has already been proved superior to SCS, has not yet been established. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: This single-center, open-label, randomized controlled trial aims to assess immediate kidney function after 120 minutes additional, end-ischemic NMP compared to HMP alone. Immediate kidney function is defined as no dialysis treatment in the first week after transplant. Eighty recipients on dialysis at the time of transplant who receive an ECD-DBD or DCD kidney graft are eligible for inclusion. In the NMP group, the donor kidney is taken of HMP upon arrival in the recipient hospital and thereafter put on NMP for 120 minutes at 37 degrees Celsius followed by transplantation. In the control group, donor kidneys stay on HMP until transplantation. The primary outcome is immediate kidney function. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: The protocol has been approved by the Medical Ethical Committee of Erasmus Medical Center (2020-0366). Results of this study will be submitted to peer-reviewed journals. REGISTRATION: registered in clinicaltrials.gov (NCT04882254). HIGHLIGHTS: This is the first RCT to compare additional NMP to HMP alone.Extensive sampling will offer in-depth analysis of kidney physiology during NMP.This RCT may help identify biomarkers to predict clinical outcomes during NMP.Biomarkers can help develop NMP as assessment tool for declined kidneys.

A comparison between combined liver kidney transplants to liver transplants alone: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Since the introduction of the Model for End-stage Liver disease criteria in 2002, more combined liver kidney transplants are performed. Until 2017, no standard allocation policy for combined liver kidney transplant (CLKT) was available and each transplant center decided eligibility for CLKT or liver transplant alone (LTA) on a case-by-case basis. The aim of this systematic review was to compare the clinical outcomes of CLKT compared to LTA in patients with renal dysfunction. METHODS: Databases were systematically searched for studies published between January 2010 and March 2021. Outcomes were expressed as risk ratios and pooled with a random-effects model. The primary outcome was patient survival. RESULTS: Four studies were included. No differences were observed for mortality risk at 1 year (risk ratio (RR) 1.03 [confidence interval (CI) 0.97-1.09], 3 years (RR 1.06 [CI 0.99-1.13]) and 5 years (RR 1.08 [CI 0.98-1.19]). The risk of graft loss was similar in the first year (RR 1.10 [CI 0.93-1.30], while 3-year risk of graft loss was significantly lower in CLKT patients (RR 1.15 [CI 1.08-1.24]). CONCLUSIONS: CLKT has similar short-term graft and patient survival as LTA in patients with renal dysfunction. More data is needed to decide from which KDIGO stage patients benefit the most from CLKT.

Rituximab in Membranous Nephropathy.

Membranous nephropathy (MN) is the most common cause of primary nephrotic syndrome among adults. The identification of phospholipase A2 receptor (PLA2R) as target antigen in most patients changed the management of MN dramatically, and provided a rationale for B-cell depleting agents such as rituximab. The efficacy of rituximab in inducing remission has been investigated in several studies, including 3 randomized controlled trials, in which complete and partial remission of proteinuria was achieved in approximately two-thirds of treated patients. Due to its favorable safety profile, rituximab is now considered a first-line treatment option for MN, especially in patients at moderate and high risk of deterioration in kidney function. However, questions remain about how to best use rituximab, including the optimal dosing regimen, a potential need for maintenance therapy, and assessment of long-term safety and efficacy outcomes. In this review, we provide an overview of the current literature and discuss both strengths and limitations of "the new standard."

Comparison of Alemtuzumab and Anti-thymocyte Globulin Treatment for Acute Kidney Allograft Rejection.

Rabbit anti-thymocyte globulin (rATG) is currently the treatment of choice for glucocorticoid-resistant, recurrent, or severe acute allograft rejection (AR). However, rATG is associated with severe infusion-related side effects. Alemtuzumab is incidentally given to kidney transplant recipients as treatment for AR. In the current study, the outcomes of patients treated with alemtuzumab for AR were compared with that of patients treated with rATG for AR. The patient-, allograft-, and infection-free survival and adverse events of 116 alemtuzumab-treated patients were compared with those of 108 patients treated with rATG for AR. Propensity scores were used to control for differences between the two groups. Patient- and allograft survival of patients treated with either alemtuzumab or rATG were not different [hazard ratio (HR) 1.14, 95%-confidence interval (CI) 0.48-2.69, p = 0.77, and HR 0.82, 95%-CI 0.45-1.5, p = 0.52, respectively). Infection-free survival after alemtuzumab treatment was superior compared with that of rATG-treated patients (HR 0.41, 95%-CI 0.25-0.68, p < 0.002). Infusion-related adverse events occurred less frequently after alemtuzumab treatment. Alemtuzumab therapy may therefore be an alternative therapy for glucocorticoid-resistant, recurrent, or severe acute kidney transplant rejection.

Costimulation Blockade in Kidney Transplant Recipients.

Costimulation between T cells and antigen-presenting cells is essential for the regulation of an effective alloimmune response and is not targeted with the conventional immunosuppressive therapy after kidney transplantation. Costimulation blockade therapy with biologicals allows precise targeting of the immune response but without non-immune adverse events. Multiple costimulation blockade approaches have been developed that inhibit the alloimmune response in kidney transplant recipients with varying degrees of success. Belatacept, an immunosuppressive drug that selectively targets the CD28-CD80/CD86 pathway, is the only costimulation blockade therapy that is currently approved for kidney transplant recipients. In the last decade, belatacept therapy has been shown to be a promising therapy in subgroups of kidney transplant recipients; however, the widespread use of belatacept has been tempered by an increased risk of acute kidney transplant rejection. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the costimulation blockade therapies that are currently in use or being developed for kidney transplant indications.

Risk of Nephrotic Syndrome for Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drug Users.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) have been associated with AKI. Their association with nephrotic syndrome has not been systematically studied. This study aimed to assess the risk of nephrotic syndrome associated with NSAID use. DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS, & MEASUREMENTS: A matched case-control study was performed in the UK primary care database. Cases were patients with a first diagnosis of nephrotic syndrome and controls were those without nephrotic syndrome. NSAID exposure (grouped either based on cyclooxygenase enzyme selectivity and chemical groups) was classified as either current (use at the nephrotic syndrome diagnosis date and corresponding date in the control group), recent, or past use. Odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) were calculated using unconditional logistic regression analysis. RESULTS: We included 2620 cases and 10,454 controls. Compared with non-use, current use of 15-28 days and >28 days of conventional NSAIDs was associated with a higher relative risk of nephrotic syndrome: adjusted OR, 1.34; 95% CI, 1.06 to 1.70, and OR, 1.42; 95% CI, 0.79 to 2.55, respectively. Also, recent use (discontinuation 1-2 months before nephrotic syndrome diagnosis date; OR, 1.55; 95% CI, 1.11 to 2.15) and past use (discontinuation 2 months-2 years; OR, 1.24; 95% CI, 1.07 to 1.43), but not current use of <15 days (OR, 0.78; 95% CI, 0.46 to 1.31) nor past use (discontinuation >2 years; OR, 0.96; 95% CI, 0.85 to 1.09) were associated with a higher relative risk of nephrotic syndrome as well as past use of selective COX-2 inhibitors (discontinuation 2-24 months; OR, 1.24; 95% CI, 0.98 to 1.58). Categorization based on chemical groups showed that acetic acid and propionic acid derivatives were associated with a higher risk of nephrotic syndrome. CONCLUSIONS: The use of conventional NSAIDs was associated with a higher risk of nephrotic syndrome starting from at least 2 weeks of exposure, as well as for recent and past exposure up to 2 years before the diagnosis of nephrotic syndrome. This higher risk appeared mainly attributable to acetic acid and propionic acid derivatives.

Successful Treatment of Severe Hyperammonaemia with Ultra-High Dose Continuous Veno-Venous Haemodiafiltration.

Hyperammonaemia is a severe condition and often requires a multimodal treatment regimen. Dialysis has been described as a potential treatment option, but currently it is not the standard of care. In this report, we describe a case of a 40-year-old postpartum woman who developed severe hyperammonaemia due to liver failure and acute kidney injury (AKI) combined with a large intra-abdominal haematoma producing nitrogen waste products. She was treated successfully with continuous veno-venous haemodiafiltration using an ultra-high effluent rate (100 mL/kg/h) and was discharged alive 32 days after the initial admission. Our report indicates that successful ammonia clearance in the setting of AKI can be obtained only by using this high effluent rate. This treatment modality should be considered in all patients with AKI and severe hyperammonaemia when other treatment modalities fail to lower ammonia levels within hours to prevent irreversible but preventable neurological damage.

Absence of Intragraft B Cells in Rejection Biopsies After Rituximab Induction Therapy: Consequences for Clinical Outcome.

BACKGROUND: The pathophysiological role of intragraft B cells during renal allograft rejection is unclear. METHODS: We studied B-cell infiltration during acute rejection in 53 patients who participated in a clinical trial in which adult renal transplant patients were randomized between a single intraoperative dose of rituximab (375 mg/m2) or placebo as induction therapy. Two independent pathologists scored all biopsies in a blinded fashion according to the Banff classification and scored for the presence of B cells and plasma cells using CD79a and CD138 as markers. RESULTS: The majority of acute rejections were T cell-mediated. The proportion of acute rejections with an antibody-mediated component tended to be lower in rituximab-treated patients (4/23, 17.4%) than in placebo-treated patients (11/30, 36.7%; P = 0.14). Biopsies of rituximab-treated patients had significantly lower scores for B cells (0.00; range, 0.00-0.50 vs 1.70; range, 0.60-3.30; P < 0.0001) and plasma cells (0.10; range, 0.00-1.90 vs 0.40; range, 0.00-7.50; P = 0.006). During acute rejection, intragraft clusters of B cells were not observed after rituximab induction therapy. However, the depletion of intragraft B cells during acute rejection did not affect steroid resistance, proteinuria, graft function at 2 years follow-up, or patient and graft survival at a median follow-up of 4.1 years (range, 2.0-6.2 years). CONCLUSIONS: These data do not support a harmful influence of intragraft B cells present during acute allograft rejection on the clinical course within the first few years after renal transplantation.

Cytokine Release After Treatment With Rituximab in Renal Transplant Recipients.

BACKGROUND: Treatment with rituximab may be accompanied by a systemic cytokine release. We studied the effects of a single dose of rituximab on cytokine levels in transplant patients and examined the underlying mechanism. METHODS: Twenty renal transplant recipients (10 rituximab-treated, 10 placebo-treated) were recruited from a randomized clinical trial. Rituximab or placebo was infused during surgery, and blood samples were taken before, during, and after surgery and analyzed for interleukin (IL)-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12, IL-17, interferon-γ, macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1ß, transforming growth factor-ß, and tumor necrosis factor-α. in vitro, healthy donor peripheral blood mononuclear cells, purified B cells, monocytes, natural killer (NK) cells, or combinations thereof were incubated with rituximab, rituximab-F(ab')2, or medium and MIP-1ß, IL-10, interferon-γ, and tumor necrosis factor-α levels were measured in the supernatant. RESULTS: Rituximab-treated patients had higher serum levels of IL-10 (101 ± 35 pg/mL vs 41 ± 9 pg/mL; P < 0.01) and MIP-1ß (950 ± 418 pg/mL vs 125 ± 32 pg/mL; P < 0.001) compared to placebo-treated patients at 2 hours after start of infusion. There was no difference in the level of other cytokines. In vitro, the addition of rituximab, but not rituximab-F(ab')2 fragments, only led to significantly increased levels of MIP-1ß in co-cultures of B and NK cells. Levels of MIP-1ß were higher in patients with a high affinity Fc-receptor compared to those with a lower affinity FcγRIIIa (1356 ± 184 pg/mL vs 679 ± 273 pg/mL; P < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: In addition to B-cell depletion, rituximab can modulate the immune response by inducing cytokine secretion, especially IL-10 and MIP-1ß. Rituximab-induced MIP-1ß secretion depends on the combined presence of B cells and FcR-bearing cells, especially NK cells.

Longitudinal analysis of T and B cell phenotype and function in renal transplant recipients with or without rituximab induction therapy.

BACKGROUND: Prevention of rejection after renal transplantation requires treatment with immunosuppressive drugs. Data on their in vivo effects on T- and B-cell phenotype and function are limited. METHODS: In a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study to prevent renal allograft rejection, patients were treated with tacrolimus, mycophenolate mofetil (MMF), steroids, and a single dose of rituximab or placebo during transplant surgery. In a subset of patients, we analyzed the number and phenotype of peripheral T and B cells by multiparameter flow cytometry before transplantation, and at 3, 6, 12, and 24 months after transplantation. RESULTS: In patients treated with tacrolimus/MMF/steroids the proportion of central memory CD4+ and CD8+ T cells was higher at 3 months post-transplant compared to pre-transplant levels. In addition, the ratio between the percentage of central memory CD4+ and CD4+ regulatory T cells was significantly higher up to 24 months post-transplant compared to pre-transplant levels. Interestingly, treatment with tacrolimus/MMF/steroids resulted in a shift toward a more memory-like B-cell phenotype post-transplant. Addition of a single dose of rituximab resulted in a long-lasting B-cell depletion. At 12 months post-transplant, the small fraction of repopulated B cells consisted of a high percentage of transitional B cells. Rituximab treatment had no effect on the T-cell phenotype and function post-transplant. CONCLUSIONS: Renal transplant recipients treated with tacrolimus/MMF/steroids show an altered memory T and B-cell compartment post-transplant. Additional B-cell depletion by rituximab leads to a relative increase of transitional and memory-like B cells, without affecting T-cell phenotype and function. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT00565331.

The effects of in vivo B-cell depleting therapy on ex-vivo cytokine production.

In renal transplantation, IL-17 production by T-cells might be dependent on the presence of B-cells. Therefore, the effect of in vivo B-cell depletion on ex-vivo IL-17 production was investigated. Twenty patients undergoing living-donor renal transplantation were recruited from a larger cohort of patients participating in a randomized, double-blind trial. All patients were allocated to a single intra-operative dose of either placebo or rituximab (375 mg/m(2)) added to the standard immunosuppressive therapy. Blood was collected at baseline, at one day, and at one month after surgery. The healthy kidney donors also gave blood at baseline. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells were stimulated ex-vivo in different manners (heat killed Candida albicans yeast, heat killed Staphylococcus aureus, or αCD3αCD28 coated beads), to address the role of B-cells in ex-vivo cytokine responses. The concentration of monocyte- and T-cell-derived cytokines (IL-1ß, IL-6, TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-17 and IL-22) was measured in supernatants. Of the 20 recruited patients, 13 received treatment with rituximab and 7 received placebo. In all patients, IL-17 was produced by CD4-positive, γδTCR-negative cells. After stimulation, there was no difference between patients and healthy controls in ex-vivo production of IL-17 or other cytokines. In all patients there was a general decrease of monocyte- and T-cell-derived cytokines after transplantation, except for IL-17. There was no difference between patients who received rituximab and patients who received placebo. A single dose of rituximab treatment added to standard immunosuppressive therapy in renal transplant patients did not influence the production of IL-17 or other monocyte- or T-cell derived cytokines after ex-vivo stimulation.

Effect of a single intraoperative high-dose ATG-Fresenius on delayed graft function in donation after cardiac-death donor renal allograft recipients: a randomized study.

OBJECTIVES: Reducing the incidence of delayed graft function after transplant with donation after cardiac death donor renal allografts would facilitate managing recipients during their first weeks after a transplant. To reduce this incidence, in most studies, induction therapy with depleting anti-T-lymphocyte antibodies is coupled with a reduction of the dosage of the calcineurin inhibitor. The separate effect of anti-T-cell therapy on the incidence and duration of delayed graft function is therefore difficult to assess. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We performed a randomized study to evaluate the effect of a single intraoperative high-dose of anti-T-lymphocyte immunoglobulin (ATG)-Fresenius (9 mg/kg body weight) on the incidence of delayed graft function. Eligible adult recipients of a first donation after cardiac death donor renal allograft were randomly assigned to ATG-Fresenius or no induction therapy. Maintenance immunosuppression consisted of tacrolimus, in an unadjusted dose, mycophenolate mofetil, and steroids. RESULTS: The study was prematurely terminated because of a lower-than-anticipated inclusion rate. Baseline characteristics were comparable in the ATG-Fresenius group (n=28) and the control group (n=24). Twenty-two patients in the ATG-Fresenius group (79%) had delayed graft function, compared with 13 in the control group (54%; P = .06). Allograft and patient survival were comparable in both groups. Serious adverse events occurred more frequently in the ATG-Fresenius group than they did in the control group (57% vs 29%; P < .05). CONCLUSIONS: Intraoperative administration of a single high-dose of ATG-Fresenius in donation after cardiac death donor renal allograft recipients, followed by triple immunosuppression with an unadjusted tacrolimus dose, seems ineffective to reduce the incidence of delayed graft function. Moreover, this was associated with a higher rate of serious adverse events (EudraCT-number, 2007-000210-36.).

Insulin requirement after a renal transplant in patients with type 2 diabetes: the choice of calcineurin inhibitors.

OBJECTIVES: Hyperglycemia is a common adverse event of immunosuppressive drugs used in organ transplant. Because cyclosporine is less diabetogenic than tacrolimus is, cyclosporine may be preferred in patients with pre-existing diabetes mellitus type 2, to prevent insulin treatment after a transplant. PATIENTS AND METHODS: From March 2005 to June 2011, adult renal transplant patients with pre-existing diabetes mellitus type 2, who were not treated with insulin before a transplant, were treated with cyclosporine in combination with mycophenolate mofetil and corticosteroids. For comparison, we used historical controls who were treated with tacrolimus instead of cyclosporine. RESULTS: Of the 16 patients treated with cyclosporine, only 4 remained free of insulin treatment after a follow-up of least 1 year, compared with 2 of 12 patients who were treated with tacrolimus (25% vs 17%; P = .67). Almost all patients required insulin treatment within 2 months of the transplant, and patients required comparable doses of insulin at different times after the transplant in both groups. None of the baseline characteristics could sufficiently predict the need to start insulin treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Cyclosporine cannot be preferred over tacrolimus to minimize either the chance of requiring insulin treatment posttransplant or the dosage of insulin in patients with pre-existing diabetes mellitus type 2.