PTH treatment before cyclic joint loading improves cartilage health and attenuates load-induced osteoarthritis development in mice.

Osteoarthritis (OA) treatment is limited by the lack of effective nonsurgical interventions to slow disease progression. Here, we examined the contributions of the subchondral bone properties to OA development. We used parathyroid hormone (PTH) to modulate bone mass before OA initiation and alendronate (ALN) to inhibit bone remodeling during OA progression. We examined the spatiotemporal progression of joint damage by combining histopathological and transcriptomic analyses across joint tissues. The additive effect of PTH pretreatment before OA initiation and ALN treatment during OA progression most effectively attenuated load-induced OA pathology. Individually, PTH directly improved cartilage health and slowed the development of cartilage damage, whereas ALN primarily attenuated subchondral bone changes associated with OA progression. Joint damage reflected early transcriptomic changes. With both treatments, the structural changes were associated with early modulation of immunoregulation and immunoresponse pathways that may contribute to disease mechanisms. Overall, our results demonstrate the potential of subchondral bone-modifying therapies to slow the progression of OA.

Grand Challenges at the Interface of Engineering and Medicine.

Over the past two decades Biomedical Engineering has emerged as a major discipline that bridges societal needs of human health care with the development of novel technologies. Every medical institution is now equipped at varying degrees of sophistication with the ability to monitor human health in both non-invasive and invasive modes. The multiple scales at which human physiology can be interrogated provide a profound perspective on health and disease. We are at the nexus of creating "avatars" (herein defined as an extension of "digital twins") of human patho/physiology to serve as paradigms for interrogation and potential intervention. Motivated by the emergence of these new capabilities, the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, the Departments of Biomedical Engineering at Johns Hopkins University and Bioengineering at University of California at San Diego sponsored an interdisciplinary workshop to define the grand challenges that face biomedical engineering and the mechanisms to address these challenges. The Workshop identified five grand challenges with cross-cutting themes and provided a roadmap for new technologies, identified new training needs, and defined the types of interdisciplinary teams needed for addressing these challenges. The themes presented in this paper include: 1) accumedicine through creation of avatars of cells, tissues, organs and whole human; 2) development of smart and responsive devices for human function augmentation; 3) exocortical technologies to understand brain function and treat neuropathologies; 4) the development of approaches to harness the human immune system for health and wellness; and 5) new strategies to engineer genomes and cells.

Mechanical loading of joint modulates T cells in lymph nodes to regulate osteoarthritis.

OBJECTIVE: The crosstalk of joint pathology with local lymph nodes in osteoarthritis (OA) is poorly understood. We characterized the change in T cells in lymph nodes following load-induced OA and established the association of the presence and migration of T cells to the onset and progression of OA. METHODS: We used an in vivo model of OA to induce mechanical load-induced joint damage. After cyclic tibial compression of mice, we analyzed lymph nodes for T cells using flow cytometry and joint pathology using histology and microcomputed tomography. The role of T-cell migration and the presence of T-cell type was examined using T-cell receptor (TCR)α-/- mice and an immunomodulatory drug, Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) receptor inhibitor-treated mice, respectively. RESULTS: We demonstrated a significant increase in T-cell populations in local lymph nodes in response to joint injury in 10, 16, and 26-week-old mice, and as a function of load duration, 1, 2, and 6 weeks. T-cell expression of inflammatory cytokine markers increased in the local lymph nodes and was associated with load-induced OA progression in the mouse knee. Joint loading in TCRα-/- mice reduced both cartilage degeneration (Osteoarthritis Research Society International (OARSI) scores: TCRα 0.568, 0.981-0.329 confidence interval (CI); wild type (WT) 1.328, 2.353-0.749 CI) and osteophyte formation. Inhibition of T-cell egress from lymph nodes attenuated load-induced cartilage degradation (OARSI scores: Fingolimod: 0.509, 1.821-0.142 CI; Saline 1.210, 1.932-0.758 CI) and decreased localization of T cells in the synovium. CONCLUSIONS: These results establish the association of lymph node-resident T cells in joint damage and suggest that the S1P receptor modulators and T-cell immunotherapies could be used to treat OA.

Inducing Angiogenesis in the Nucleus Pulposus.

Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) gene delivery to Lewis rat lumbar intervertebral discs (IVDs) drives bone formation anterior and external to the IVD, suggesting the IVD is inhospitable to osteogenesis. This study was designed to determine if IVD destruction with a proteoglycanase, and/or generating an IVD blood supply by gene delivery of an angiogenic growth factor, could render the IVD permissive to intra-discal BMP-driven osteogenesis and fusion. Surgical intra-discal delivery of naïve or gene-programmed cells (BMP2/BMP7 co-expressing or VEGF165 expressing) +/- purified chondroitinase-ABC (chABC) in all permutations was performed between lumbar 4/5 and L5/6 vertebrae, and radiographic, histology, and biomechanics endpoints were collected. Follow-up anti-sFlt Western blotting was performed. BMP and VEGF/BMP treatments had the highest stiffness, bone production and fusion. Bone was induced anterior to the IVD, and was not intra-discal from any treatment. chABC impaired BMP-driven osteogenesis, decreased histological staining for IVD proteoglycans, and made the IVD permissive to angiogenesis. A soluble fragment of VEGF Receptor-1 (sFlt) was liberated from the IVD matrix by incubation with chABC, suggesting dysregulation of the sFlt matrix attachment is a possible mechanism for the chABC-mediated IVD angiogenesis we observed. Based on these results, the IVD can be manipulated to foster vascular invasion, and by extension, possibly osteogenesis.

Posttraumatic osteoarthritis: from basic science to clinical implications.

Posttraumatic osteoarthritis (PTOA) is a subset of osteoarthritis that occurs after joint injury and is associated with degradation of articular cartilage and subchondral bone. As compared with primary osteoarthritis, PTOA occurs in a time window initiated by a traumatic event resulting in damage to layers of joint structure and alterations in joint shape. As techniques in open reduction and internal fixation continue to mature, our success in preventing posttraumatic osteoarthritis has not kept pace. Advances in research in the subchondral bone, inflammatory response, and joint mechanics continue to open our understanding of this posttraumatic process. In addition, there are possibilities emerging as biological agents to therapeutically alter the progression of PTOA.

Small-Animal Compression Models of Osteoarthritis.

The utility of nonsurgical, mechanical compression-based joint injury models to study osteoarthritis pathogenesis and treatments is increasing. Joint injury may be induced via cyclic compression loading or acute overloading to induce anterior cruciate ligament rupture. Models utilizing mechanical testing systems are highly repeatable, require little expertise, and result in a predictable onset of osteoarthritis-like pathology on a rapidly progressing timeline. In this chapter, we describe the procedures and equipment needed to perform mechanical compression-induced initiation of osteoarthritis in mice and rats.

PTH Treatment Increases Cortical Bone Mass More in Response to Compression than Tension in Mice.

Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is an anabolic osteoporosis treatment that increases bone mass and reduces fracture risk. Clinically, the effects of PTH are site-specific, increasing bone mass more at the spine than the hip and not increasing bone mass at the radius. Differences in local loading environment between the spine, hip, and radius may help explain the variation in efficacy, as PTH and mechanical loading have been shown to synergistically increase bone mass. We hypothesized that differences in loading mode might further explain these variations. Owing to the curvature of the mouse tibia, cyclic compression of the hindlimb causes bending at the tibial midshaft, placing the anterior surface under tension and the posterior surface under compression. We investigated the combination of PTH treatment and tibial loading in an osteoblast-specific estrogen receptor-alpha knockout mouse model of low bone mass (pOC-ERαKO) and their littermate controls (LCs) and analyzed bone morphology in the tensile, compressive, and neutral regions of the tibial midshaft. We also hypothesized that pretreating wild-type C57Bl/6J (WT) mice with PTH prior to mechanical loading would enhance the synergistic anabolic effects. Compression was more anabolic than tension, and PTH enhanced the effect of loading, particularly under compression. PTH pretreatment maintained the synergistic anabolic effect for longer durations than concurrent treatment and loading alone. Together these data provide insights into more effective physical therapy and exercise regimens for patients receiving PTH treatment. © 2022 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research (ASBMR).

Lumbar spine intervertebral disc gene delivery of BMPs induces anterior spine fusion in lewis rats.

Minimally invasive techniques and biological autograft alternatives such as the bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) can reduce morbidity associated with spinal fusions. This study was a proof-of-concept for gene-therapy-mediated anterior spine fusion that could be adapted to percutaneous technique for clinical use. Isogeneic bone marrow stromal cells genetically programmed to express b-galactosidase (LACZ, a marker gene), BMP2, BMP7, a mixture of BMP2 and BMP7 infected cells (homodimers, HM), or BMP2/7 heterodimers (HT) were implanted into the discs between lumbar vertebrae 4 and 5 (L4/5) and L5/6 of male Lewis rats. Spine stiffening was monitored at 4, 8 and 12 weeks using noninvasive-induced angular displacement (NIAD) testing. At 12 weeks isolated spines were assessed for fusion and bone formation by palpation, biomechanical testing [four-point bending stiffness, moment to failure in extension, and in vitro angular displacement (IVAD)], faxitron x-rays, microCT, and histology. Progressive loss of NIAD occurred in only the HT group (p < 0.001), and biomechanical tests correlated with the NIAD results. Significant fusion occurred only in the HT group (94% of animals with one or both levels) as assessed by palpation (p < 0.001), which predicted HT bone production assessed by faxitron (p ≤ 0.001) or microCT (p < 0.023). Intervertebral bridging bone was consistently observed only in HT-treated specimens. Induced bone was located anterior and lateral to the disc space, with no bone formation noted within the disc. Percutaneous anterior spine fusions may be possible clinically, but induction of bone inside the disc space remains a challenge.

Molecular Identification of Spatially Distinct Anabolic Responses to Mechanical Loading in Murine Cortical Bone.

Osteoporosis affects over 200 million women worldwide, one-third of whom are predicted to suffer from an osteoporotic fracture in their lifetime. The most promising anabolic drugs involve administration of expensive antibodies. Because mechanical loading stimulates bone formation, our current data, using a mouse model, replicates the anabolic effects of loading in humans and may identify novel pathways amenable to oral treatment. Murine tibial compression produces axially varying deformations along the cortical bone, inducing highest strains at the mid-diaphysis and lowest at the metaphyseal shell. To test the hypothesis that load-induced transcriptomic responses at different axial locations of cortical bone would vary as a function of strain magnitude, we loaded the left tibias of 10-week-old female C57Bl/6 mice in vivo in compression, with contralateral limbs as controls. Animals were euthanized at 1, 3, or 24 hours post-loading or loaded for 1 week (n = 4-5/group). Bone marrow and cancellous bone were removed, cortical bone was segmented into the metaphyseal shell, proximal diaphysis, and mid-diaphysis, and load-induced differential gene expression and enriched biological processes were examined for the three segments. At each time point, the mid-diaphysis (highest strain) had the greatest transcriptomic response. Similarly, biological processes regulating bone formation and turnover increased earlier and to the greatest extent at the mid-diaphysis. Higher strain induced greater levels of osteoblast and osteocyte genes, whereas expression was lower in osteoclasts. Among the top differentially expressed genes at 24-hours post-loading, 17 had known functions in bone biology, of which 12 were present only in osteoblasts, 3 exclusively in osteoclasts, and 2 were present in both cell types. Based on these results, we conclude that murine tibial loading induces spatially unique transcriptomic responses correlating with strain magnitude in cortical bone. © 2022 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research (ASBMR).

Biphasic regulation of osteoblast development via the ERK MAPK-mTOR pathway.

Emerging evidence supports that osteogenic differentiation of skeletal progenitors is a key determinant of overall bone formation and bone mass. Despite extensive studies showing the function of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) in osteoblast differentiation, none of these studies show in vivo evidence of a role for MAPKs in osteoblast maturation subsequent to lineage commitment. Here, we describe how the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathway in osteoblasts controls bone formation by suppressing the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway. We also show that, while ERK inhibition blocks the differentiation of osteogenic precursors when initiated at an early stage, ERK inhibition surprisingly promotes the later stages of osteoblast differentiation. Accordingly, inhibition of the ERK pathway using a small compound inhibitor or conditional deletion of the MAP2Ks Map2k1 (MEK1) and Map2k2 (MEK2), in mature osteoblasts and osteocytes, markedly increased bone formation due to augmented osteoblast differentiation. Mice with inducible deletion of the ERK pathway in mature osteoblasts also displayed similar phenotypes, demonstrating that this phenotype reflects continuous postnatal inhibition of late-stage osteoblast maturation. Mechanistically, ERK inhibition increases mitochondrial function and SGK1 phosphorylation via mTOR2 activation, which leads to osteoblast differentiation and production of angiogenic and osteogenic factors to promote bone formation. This phenotype was partially reversed by inhibiting mTOR. Our study uncovers a surprising dichotomy of ERK pathway functions in osteoblasts, whereby ERK activation promotes the early differentiation of osteoblast precursors, but inhibits the subsequent differentiation of committed osteoblasts via mTOR-mediated regulation of mitochondrial function and SGK1.

Contribution of joint tissue properties to load-induced osteoarthritis.

Objective: Clinical evidence suggests that abnormal mechanical forces play a major role in the initiation and progression of osteoarthritis (OA). However, few studies have examined the mechanical environment that leads to disease. Thus, using a mouse tibial loading model, we quantified the cartilage contact stresses and examined the effects of altering tissue material properties on joint stresses during loading. Design: Using a discrete element model (DEA) in conjunction with joint kinematics data from a murine knee joint compression model, the magnitude and distribution of contact stresses in the tibial cartilage during joint loading were quantified at levels ranging from 0 to 9 N in 1 N increments. In addition, a simplified finite element (FEA) contact model was developed to simulate the knee joint, and parametric analyses were conducted to investigate the effects of altering bone and cartilage material properties on joint stresses during compressive loading. Results: As loading increased, the peak contact pressures were sufficient to induce fibrillations on the cartilage surfaces. The computed areas of peak contact pressures correlated with experimentally defined areas of highest cartilage damage. Only alterations in cartilage properties and geometry caused large changes in cartilage contact pressures. However, changes in both bone and cartilage material properties resulted in significant changes in stresses induced in the bone during compressive loading. Conclusions: The level of mechanical stress induced by compressive tibial loading directly correlated with areas of biological change observed in the mouse knee joint. These results, taken together with the parametric analyses, are the first to demonstrate both experimentally and computationally that the tibial loading model is a useful preclinical platform with which to predict and study the effects of modulating bone and/or cartilage properties on attenuating OA progression. Given the direct correlation between computational modeling and experimental results, the effects of tissue-modifying treatments may be predicted prior to in vivo experimentation, allowing for novel therapeutics to be developed.

Bone mass and adaptation to mechanical loading are sexually dimorphic in adult osteoblast-specific ERα knockout mice.

Estrogen receptor-alpha (ERα) regulates bone mass and is implicated in bone tissue's response to mechanical loading. The effects of ERα deletion in mice depend on sex, anatomical location, and the cellular stage at which ERα is removed. Few studies have investigated the effect of age on the role of ERα in skeletal maintenance and functional adaptation. We previously demonstrated that bone mass and adaptation to loading were altered in growing 10-week-old female and male mice lacking ERα in mature osteoblasts and osteocytes (pOC-ERαKO). Here our goal was to determine the effects of ERα and mechanical loading in skeletally-mature adult mice. We subjected 26-week-old skeletally-mature adult pOC-ERαKO and littermate control (LC) mice of both sexes to two weeks of in vivo cyclic tibial loading. ERα deletion in male mice did not alter bone mass or the response to loading. Adult female pOC-ERαKO mice had reduced cancellous and cortical bone mass and increased adaptation to high-magnitude mechanical loading compared to LC mice. Thus, ERα deletion from mature osteoblasts reduced the bone mass and increased the mechanoadaptation of adult female but not male mice. Additionally, compared to our previous work in young mice, adult female mice had greatly reduced mechanoadaptation and adult male mice retained most of their mechanoadaptation with age.

Potential influences on optimizing long-term musculoskeletal health in children and adolescents with X-linked hypophosphatemia (XLH).

In recent years, much progress has been made in understanding the mechanisms of bone growth and development over a lifespan, including the crosstalk between muscle and bone, to achieve optimal structure and function. While there have been significant advances in understanding how to help improve and maintain bone health in normal individuals, there is limited knowledge on whether these mechanisms apply or are compromised in pathological states. X-linked hypophosphatemia (XLH) (ORPHA:89936) is a rare, heritable, renal phosphate-wasting disorder. The resultant chronic hypophosphatemia leads to progressive deterioration in musculoskeletal function, including impaired growth, rickets, and limb deformities in children, as well as lifelong osteomalacia with reduced bone quality and impaired muscle structure and function. The clinical manifestations of the disease vary both in presentation and severity in affected individuals, and many of the consequences of childhood defects persist into adulthood, causing significant morbidity that impacts physical function and quality of life. Intervention to restore phosphate levels early in life during the critical stages of skeletal development in children with XLH could optimize growth and may prevent or reduce bone deformities in childhood. A healthier bone structure, together with improved muscle function, can lead to physical activity enhancing musculoskeletal health throughout life. In adults, continued management may help to maintain the positive effects acquired from childhood treatment, thereby slowing or halting disease progression. In this review, we summarize the opinions from members of a working group with expertise in pediatrics, epidemiology, and bone, joint and muscle biology, on potential outcomes for people with XLH, who have been optimally treated from an early age and continue treatment throughout life.

Ceramic composite with gentamicin decreases persistent infection and increases bone formation in a rat model of debrided osteomyelitis.

Introduction: Current methods of managing osteomyelitic voids after debridement are inadequate and result in significant morbidity to patients. Synthetic ceramic void fillers are appropriate for non-infected bone defects but serve as a nidus of re-infection in osteomyelitis after debridement. CERAMENT G (CG) is an injectable ceramic bone void filler which contains gentamicin and is currently being evaluated for use in osteomyelitic environments after debridement due to its theoretical ability to serve as a scaffold for healing while eliminating residual bacteria after debridement through the elution of antibiotics. The goal of this study was to evaluate (1) the rate of persistent infection and (2) new bone growth of a debrided osteomyelitic defect in a rat model which has been treated with either gentamicin-impregnated ceramic cement (CERAMENT G) or the same void filler without antibiotics (CERAMENT, CBVF). Methods: Osteomyelitis was generated in the proximal tibia of Sprague Dawley rats, subsequently debrided, and the defect filled with either (1) CG ( n = 20 ), (2) CBVF ( n = 20 ), or (3) nothing ( n = 20 ). Each group was euthanized after 6 weeks. Infection was detected through bacterial culture and histology. Bone growth was quantified using microCT. Results: Infection was not detected in defects treated with CG as compared with 35 % of defects ( 7 / 20 ) treated with CBVF and 50 % ( 10 / 20 ) of empty defects ( p = 0.001 ). Bone volume in the defect of CG-treated rats was greater than the CBVF (0.21 vs. 0.17, p = 0.021 ) and empty groups (0.21 vs. 0.11, p < 0.001 ) at 6 weeks after implantation. Conclusions: Ceramic void filler with gentamicin (CERAMENT G) decreased the rate of persistent infection and increased new bone growth as compared to the same void filler without antibiotics (CERAMENT) and an empty defect in a rat model of debrided osteomyelitis.

Low bone mass resulting from impaired estrogen signaling in bone increases severity of load-induced osteoarthritis in female mice.

OBJECTIVE: Reduced subchondral bone mass and increased remodeling are associated with early stage OA. However, the direct effect of low subchondral bone mass on the risk and severity of OA development is unclear. We sought to determine the role of low bone mass resulting from a bone-specific loss of estrogen signaling in load-induced OA development using female osteoblast-specific estrogen receptor-alpha knockout (pOC-ERαKO) mice. METHODS: Osteoarthritis was induced by cyclic mechanical loading applied to the left tibia of 26-week-old female pOC-ERαKO and littermate control mice at peak loads of 6.5N, 7N, or 9N for 2 weeks. Cartilage damage and thickness, osteophyte development, and joint capsule fibrosis were assessed from histological sections. Subchondral bone morphology was analyzed by microCT. The correlation between OA severity and intrinsic bone parameters was determined. RESULTS: The loss of ERα in bone resulted in an osteopenic subchondral bone phenotype, but did not directly affect cartilage health. Following two weeks of cyclic tibial loading to induce OA pathology, pOC-ERαKO mice developed more severe cartilage damage, larger osteophytes, and greater joint capsule fibrosis compared to littermate controls. Intrinsic bone parameters negatively correlated with measures of OA severity in loaded limbs. CONCLUSIONS: Subchondral bone osteopenia resulting from bone-specific loss of estrogen signaling was associated with increased severity of load-induced OA pathology, suggesting that reduced subchondral bone mass directly exacerbates load-induced OA development. Bone-specific changes associated with estrogen loss may contribute to the increased incidence of OA in post-menopausal women.

Early inhibition of subchondral bone remodeling slows load-induced posttraumatic osteoarthritis development in mice.

Posttraumatic osteoarthritis (PTOA) is associated with abnormal and increased subchondral bone remodeling. Inhibiting altered remodeling immediately following joint damage can slow PTOA progression. Clinically, however, inhibiting remodeling when significant joint damage is already present has minimal effects in slowing further disease progression. We sought to determine the treatment window following PTOA initiation in which inhibiting remodeling can attenuate progression of joint damage. We hypothesized that the most effective treatment would be to inhibit remodeling immediately after PTOA initiation. We used an animal model in which a single bout of mechanical loading was applied to the left tibia of 26-week-old male C57Bl/6 mice at a peak load of 9 N to initiate load-induced PTOA development. Following loading, we inhibited bone remodeling using daily alendronate (ALN) treatment administered either immediately or with 1 or 2 weeks' delay up to 3 or 6 weeks post-loading. A vehicle (VEH) treatment group controlled for daily injections. Cartilage and subchondral bone morphology and osteophyte development were analyzed and compared among treatment groups. Inhibiting remodeling using ALN immediately after load-induced PTOA initiation reduced cartilage degeneration, slowed osteophyte formation, and preserved subchondral bone volume compared to VEH treatment. Delaying the inhibition of bone remodeling at 1 or 2 weeks similarly attenuated cartilage degeneration at 6 weeks, but did not slow the development of osteoarthritis (OA)-related changes in the subchondral bone, including osteophyte formation and subchondral bone erosions. Immediate inhibition of subchondral bone remodeling was most effective in slowing PTOA progression across the entire joint, indicating that abnormal bone remodeling within the first week following PTOA initiation played a critical role in subsequent cartilage damage, subchondral bone changes, and overall joint degeneration. These results highlight the potential of anti-resorptive drugs as preemptive therapies for limiting PTOA development after joint injury, rather than as disease-modifying therapies after joint damage is established. © 2021 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research (ASBMR).

Systemic osteoprotegerin does not improve peri-implant bone volume or osseointegration in rabbits.

Anti-RANKL (receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand) agents function by blocking the differentiation of osteoclasts, thereby proving useful in the clinical management of postmenopausal osteoporosis. The effects of such agents on osseointegration is less well understood. The purpose of the current study was to investigate whether osteoprotegerin (OPG), an osteoclast inhibitor, enhances the known anabolic effects of mechanical loading (VEH) and intermittent PTH (iPTH) using a well-established rabbit model of osseointegration. In the first set of experiments, OPG was administered either alone or combined with iPTH to study its effects on measured bone mass. The second set of experiments was conducted using a higher dosage of OPG (10 mg/kg) to explore its early impact at the cellular and molecular levels. All subjects had mechanical load applied to the implant on one extremity, and no load applied on the contralateral side. In the first set of experiments, OPG alone decreased peri-implant bone mass compared to the mechanical loading group, whereas OPG + iPTH increased peri-implant bone mass compared to the OPG group. In the second set of experiments, high-dose OPG significantly decreased osteoclast number (-74.3%) at 1 week. However, this effect was not sustained as osteoclast number returned to baseline by 2 weeks. These results suggest that systemic administration of OPG does not enhance osseointegration, but rather has a detrimental effect.

Obesity and load-induced posttraumatic osteoarthritis in the absence of fracture or surgical trauma.

Osteoarthritis is increasingly viewed as a heterogeneous disease with multiple phenotypic subgroups. Obesity enhances joint degeneration in mouse models of posttraumatic osteoarthritis (PTOA). Most models of PTOA involve damage to surrounding tissues caused by surgery/fracture; it is unclear if obesity enhances cartilage degeneration in the absence of surgery/fracture. We used a nonsurgical animal model of load-induced PTOA to determine the effect of obesity on cartilage degeneration 2 weeks after loading. Cartilage degeneration was caused by a single bout of cyclic tibial loading at either a high or moderate load magnitude in adult male mice with severe obesity (C57Bl6/J + high-fat diet), mild obesity (toll-like receptor 5 deficient mouse [TLR5KO]), or normal adiposity (C57Bl6/J mice + normal diet and TLR5KO mice in which obesity was prevented by manipulation of the gut microbiome). Two weeks after loading, cartilage degeneration occurred in limbs loaded at a high magnitude, as determined by OARSI scores (P < .001). However, the severity of cartilage damage did not differ among groups. Osteophyte width and synovitis of loaded limbs did not differ among groups. Furthermore, obesity did not enhance cartilage damage in limbs evaluated 6 weeks after loading. Constituents of the gut microbiota differed among groups. Our findings suggest that, in the absence of surgery/fracture, obesity may not influence cartilage loss after a single mechanical insult, suggesting that either damage to surrounding tissues or repeated mechanical insult is necessary for obesity to influence cartilage degeneration. These findings further illustrate heterogeneity in PTOA phenotypes and complex interactions between mechanical/metabolic factors in cartilage loss.

Murine Axial Compression Tibial Loading Model to Study Bone Mechanobiology: Implementing the Model and Reporting Results.

In vivo, tibial loading in mice is increasingly used to study bone adaptation and mechanotransduction. To achieve standardized and defined experimental conditions, loading parameters and animal-related factors must be considered when performing in vivo loading studies. In this review, we discuss these loading and animal-related experimental conditions, present methods to assess bone adaptation, and suggest reporting guidelines. This review originated from presentations by each of the authors at the workshop "Developing Best Practices for Mouse Models of In Vivo Loading" during the Preclinical Models Section at the Orthopaedic Research Society Annual Meeting, San Diego, CA, March 2017. Following the meeting, the authors engaged in detailed discussions with consideration of relevant literature. The guidelines and recommendations in this review are provided to help researchers perform in vivo loading experiments in mice, and thus further our knowledge of bone adaptation and the mechanisms involved in mechanotransduction. © 2019 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 38:233-252, 2020.