Grape pomace and pecan shell fortified bread: The effect of dietary fiber-phenolic compounds interaction on the in vitro accessibility of phenolic compounds and in vitro glycemic index.

Grape pomace (GP) and pecan shell (PS) are two by-products rich in phenolic compounds (PC), and dietary fiber (DF) that may be considered for the development of functional baked foods. In this study, four formulations with different GP:PS ratios (F1(8%:5%), F2(5%:5%), F3(5%:2%), F4(0%:5%), and control bread (CB)) were elaborated and characterized (physiochemical and phytochemical content). Also, their inner structure (SEM), changes in their FTIR functional group's vibrations, and the bioaccessibility of PC and sugars, including an in vitro glycemic index, were analyzed. Results showed that all GP:PS formulations had higher mineral, protein, DF (total, soluble, and insoluble), and PC content than CB. Additionally, PC and non-starch polysaccharides affected gluten and starch absorbance and pores distribution. In vitro digestion model showed a reduction in the glycemic index for all formulations, compared to CB. These findings highlight the possible health benefits of by-products and their interactions in baked goods.

Impact of fermentation by Saccharomyces Cerevisiae on the macronutrient and in vitro digestion characteristics of Chinese noodles.

This study examined the impact of live bread yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) on the nutritional characteristics of Asian dried noodles. Micronutrient analysis of fermented noodles revealed a 6.9% increase in the overall amino acid content, a 37.1% increase in the vitamin B content and a 63.0% decrease in the phytic acid level. Molecular weight analysis of starch and protein contents revealed moderate decrease in the fermented noodles. The in vitro digestion of fermented noodles showed a slightly faster initial acidification, four-fold decrease in the initial shear viscosity (from 8.85 to 1.94 Pa·s). The initial large food particle count (>2 mm diameter) was 19.5% lower in the fermented noodles. The fermented noodles contained slightly higher free sugar content (73.5 mg g-1 noodle) during the gastric digestion phase. The overall nutrition and digestion results indicate nutritional improvement and digestion-easing attributes in the fermented noodles.

Investigating the mildew and yeast in the bakeries of Abhar City, Iran.

The presence of mold and yeast in bread leads to contamination in bread. Cancer and estrogenic abnormalities in humans are among the diseases caused by fungal and mold mycotoxins in bread. Bread production waste was estimated at about 30 % in Iran country. A comprehensive and specific image study of the sanitary condition of bread and bakeries in Abhar city has not been done. The purpose of this study was to determine the contamination resulting in yeast and mildew on bread supplied in Abhar City bakeries, to examine the sanitary condition of bakeries, and to provide the food security of Iranians. As well as determining the impact of health status variables and the location of bakeries on mold and fungal contamination. This research was done in the bakeries of Abhar in the period of February 1, 2022 to July 1, 2022. Evaluation of mold and yeast load of 61 breads from 61 bakeries was done using sterile potato dextrose agar with Chloramphenicol plates. In order to check the hygiene status of the bakery environment, modified form of Article 13 with 56 items equal to 56 scores was completed. Variables such as baking soda, sodium dithionite, salt percentage, to evaluate mildew and yeast, and the sanitary condition of bakeries were analyzed. After evaluating health status, the score range was divided based on a 4-point Likert scale. All results were compared with the standard and contamination level of each restaurant. 31 of 60 samples (51.6 %) showed mold and yeast infection. 17 bakeries of the 61 bakeries surveyed (43 %) received 100 % points in the five sections (individual health of 14 items, food hygiene of 10 items, tools and equipment of 16 items, building sanitation of 16 items, and disinfection). 49 samples (80.3 %) of 61 breads evaluated by chemical standard such as amount of baking soda were favorable. Sixty samples (98.4 %) of 61 breads complied with the chemical standard of sodium dithionite. 5 samples (8.3 %) of the 61 breads had excess salt levels. 33 samples out of 61 tested (54.1 %) were infected with mold and yeast. Of these, 26 (78.7 %) belonged to serotypes producing toxin A. The bread quality in some bakeries in Abhar City is poor and infected with mold and yeast. Careful monitoring and monitoring of the health status of bakeries, along with training sessions for bakery staff, will lead to improved baking health.

Study on the effects of different ammonium salts on baked bread.

Three different ammonium salts, namely diammonium hydrogen phosphate, ammonium bicarbonate, and ammonium carbonate, were added into bread samples as an additive to analyze their effects on bread. The color, texture, deoxyfructosazine of the functional substance, and pyrazine flavor substance, which were closely related to the quality of the bread, were analyzed. The addition of ammonium salts during the preparation of bread led to the darkening and hardening of the bread. Meanwhile, compared with the control group, the Maillard reaction between the ammonium salt and reducing sugar in bread produced functional deoxyfructosazine and pyrazine flavor substances. Among the three ammonium salts, the addition of diammonium hydrogen phosphate at different concentrations had the most substantial effect on the quality of baked bread, including the production of more deoxyfructosazine, and more types of pyrazine flavor substances. Through an analysis of the value of odor activity, it was found that the addition of diammonium hydrogen phosphate had a more remarkable contribution to the flavor of the bread. The maximum total content of deoxyfructosazine reached 1292.23 µg/g, and the value of odor activity reached 39.86 in this study. These results are extremely useful in the production of bread with superior flavor and functional characteristics. Also, they provide a guideline for the selection of ammonium salt as an additive in baked goods.

Natural Remedies and Health; A Review of Bee Pollen and Bee Bread Impact on Combating Diabetes and Obesity.

PURPOSE OF THE REVIEW: Diabetes and obesity are complicated multifactorial conditions that have been highlighted as a significant global burden for both health care and national budgets and their complications are considered a substantial public health concern. This review focuses on the potential anti-diabetic and anti-obesity properties of bee pollen (BP) and bee bread (BB), two bee products with a long history of use in traditional medicine and supplemental nutrition. RECENT FINDINGS: Recent studies, encompassing cellular models, experimental models, and clinical trials, have shed light on the therapeutic potential of these bee products. BP and BB are rich in phytochemical constituents like flavonoids and phenolic acids, which are believed to confer their anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, and anti-obesity properties. These bee products have shown promising results in the treatment of diabetes and obesity, underscoring their potential as natural therapeutic tools. BP and BB possess properties that aid in decreasing blood glucose levels and body weight. BP and BB have been found to enhance insulin sensitivity, alleviate oxidative stress, regulate appetite, adjust levels of hormones linked to obesity, while bolstering anti-oxidant defense systems. BP and BB nutritional qualities and health benefits make them promising candidates for further research towards diabetes and obesity treatment strategies.

The role of wheat flour minor components in predicting water absorption.

Water absorption in wheat flour is a crucial parameter for optimizing bread-making processes. The determinants of wheat flour water absorption were investigated through the analysis of 28 compositional and technological properties of 150 wheats grown in France. A multiple linear regression approach was used to predict the water absorption, selecting the best model through successive examination of Bayesian Information Criterion, Variance Inflation Factor and minimizing the total number of variables. A model with protein content, soluble starch, damaged starch and specific viscosity from water extractable arabinoxylans was identified as the best trade-off between the number of variables and the predictive performances among all possible models. Soluble Starch, varying between 1.11 and 6.21 g/100 g flour a new criterion measured alongside water-extractable arabinoxylans content, varying between 0.26 and 0.86 g/100 g flour, shows significant potential to predict water absorption compared to damaged starch.

Physico-chemical characterisation of whole meal flours from three wild chickpea varieties and their technological performance in Gluten Free Bread.

The present study investigated the physico-chemical characteristics of whole-meal flours from three wild chickpea varieties (white chickpea - WC, red rough chickpea - RRC, red smooth chickpea - RSC) compared to a modern chickpea variety (MC) and their bread-making performances in 30% (w/w flour) substituted GF breads. Wild chickpea flours showed the highest ash, total dietary fiber (TDF), and total antioxidant capacity (6.3%, 13.4%, and 9.5% increase for WC, RRC, and RSC flour compared to MC flour) values compared to MC sample, and red varieties (RRC- and RSC-samples) showed the highest total phenolic content (15.5% and 17.0% increase compared to MC flour). Significant differences were also found in protein content and techno-functional properties. Bread specific volume and crumb hardness were significantly affected by chickpea variety, with red varieties (RRC- and RSC-samples) revealing the lowest impact. 1H NMR proton molecular mobility significantly changed as a function of chickpea variety, and these differences might be associated to the different macroscopic bread quality. Overall, the tested wild chickpea flours revealed valuable chemical composition, and differed in the techno-functional and bread-making performances, with red varieties showing the most promising results to improve GF breads.

Effects of heterotrophic Euglena gracilis powder on dough microstructure, rheological properties, texture, and nutritional composition of steamed bread.

This study investigated the effects of incorporating different levels of Euglena gracilis microalgae powder (MP) on the dough properties, rheology, and quality attributes of Chinese steamed bread (CSB) for the first time. Moderate levels of MP (2%) reinforced the gluten network and improved protein structure, while higher levels (4-8%) adversely affected the gluten network and rheological properties. The addition of MP decreased the specific volume, pore number, and pore density of CSB, but increased pore size, hardness, and chewiness. It also imparted a yellow color to the CSB and slowed down moisture loss during storage. Notably, MP effectively increased the protein and lipid content of CSB, enhancing its nutritional value. The results suggest that optimizing the MP level is crucial to achieve nutritional enhancement while maintaining desirable texture and sensory attributes. An addition of 2% MP can strike a balance between nutrition and the overall quality of the final product.

"Wait, Do I Need More Fiber?" Exploring UK Consumers' Dietary Fiber-Related Awareness and White Bread as a Viable Solution to Promote Subsequent Intake.

Background: Sufficient dietary fiber consumption is associated with well-established health benefits, yet such intake is currently suboptimal globally. Thus, there is interest in developing strategies to improve dietary fiber intake. One such approach is to increase the dietary fiber content of staple foods, but this needs relevant investigation. Methods: Forty-two United Kingdom (UK) based consumers (18-76 y) were recruited to take part in seven focus group sessions investigating: (i) key factors in food choice; (ii) dietary fiber-related knowledge, awareness, consumption habits, and engagement levels; (iii) willingness to consume dietary fiber-rich staple foods; and (iv) gain initial feedback on dietary fiber-rich breads. Results: Overall, key dietary fiber themes emerged such as knowledge (benefits, foods, recommendations and labeling), consumption (not measuring intake), barriers (convenience and knowledge), resources (education and public appeal), and topics (food examples and cooking). Consumers were positive per se to the idea of dietary fiber-rich staple foods but with various caveats (no changes in appearance, taste, and cost). White bread trends were centered around context (sandwich and toast), habit (comfort food), preferences (soft and fresh), and consumption is variable (daily to less often). In addition, consumers' preferred labeling strategy for dietary fiber-rich breads was predominately focused on transparency and visibility. Overall, the newly developed breads were well received demonstrating the potential of our prototypes to fit into the white bread market; however, additional consumer insights are needed. Conclusion: Our findings recommend combining education with a personalized element of advice, coupled with a collective effort from the government and food industry, as essential to help encourage a step-change in dietary fiber consumption in the UK population.

Concentration of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in bread and health risk assessment across the globe: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Although bread is the principal food in most countries, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) may be present and pose a potential risk to consumers. The aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive report on the concentration and health risks associated with PAHs in bread around the world. Various databases, such as Scopus, PubMed, Science Direct, and Google Scholar, were searched from their beginnings until December 2023 for this systematic review, which included 34 potentially relevant articles with data relating to 1057 bread samples. Utilizing a multilevel regression modeling approach, the study evaluated various factors such as fuel type, bread type, and geographical location. Following the initial evaluation, in 26.47% and 20.28% of all studies, the levels of Bap and PAH4 were higher than the permissible limit values, respectively. Based on the isomer ratios, 55.88% of the studies associated the presence of PAHs in bread samples with pyrogenic/coal combustion sources. According to the carcinogenic risk results, bread consumers in all studies have been exposed to moderate or high levels of carcinogenicity. The most significant risk levels are associated with the consumption of bread in Egypt, Kuwait, Iran, and India. Moreover, meta-regression analysis demonstrated significantly higher toxicity equivalent quotient and cancer risk mean values in bread baked using fossil fuels compared to other sources (p < .05). The high concentrations of PAHs, especially Benzo[a]pyrene, in bread pose a serious public health risk. Stringent regulations and monitoring are crucial to reduce contamination. Further research is necessary to develop safe processing methods to remove PAHs in bread.

Multivariate analysis of phenotypic diversity elite bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) genotypes from ICARDA in Ethiopia.

Wheat is an important crop for food security, providing a source of protein and energy for the growing population in Ethiopia. However, both biotic and abiotic factors limit national wheat productivity. The availability of genetically diverse wheat genotypes is crucial for developing new wheat varieties that are both high-yielding and resilient to stress. Therefore, this field trial aimed to assess phenotypic variation and relationship among ICARDA-derived bread wheat genotypes using multivariate analysis techniques. The trial was conducted at three locations: Enewari, Wogere, and Kulumsa using an alpha lattice design with two replications during the main cropping seasons of 2022 and 2023. Phenotypic data on eight agronomic traits and the severity of yellow rust were collected and R programming was used for data analysis. Individual and combined location data analysis of variance showed significant differences (p ≤ 0.05) among genotypes for most of the studied traits. The highest heritability and genetic advance as a percentage of the mean were observed in days to heading (90.8, 21.29), plant height (72.4, 28.6), seeds per spike (61.7, 28), thousand kernel weight (61.9, 12), and area under the disease progress curve (67, 39.8), suggesting a predominance of additive gene action. Grain yield showed a strong positive correlation with days to maturity, plant height, spike length, spikelet per spike, and thousand kernel weight for each location. Dendrogram and phylogenetic tree methods were used to group genotypes into four genetically distinct clusters. Cluster II and III had the greatest inter-cluster distance, indicating higher diversity among their genotypes. This study identified new candidate genotypes with superior agronomic performance, high grain yield traits, and robust resistance to yellow rust, making them valuable for both current and future wheat breeding programs. Additionally, the comprehensive dataset produced in this study could facilitate the identification of genetic variations influencing desirable traits through genome-wide association analysis.

Effects of soy protein isolate interaction with brown rice starch on the multiscale structure of brown rice bread.

BACKGROUND: Gluten-free bread (GFB) has technical bottlenecks such as hard texture, rough taste and low nutrition in practical production. In order to solve these problems, this study used germinated brown rice starch as the main raw material, and investigated the effects of soybean isolate protein (SPI) on the multiscale structure of germinated brown rice starch and bread quality. RESULTS: A gluten-free rice bread process simulation system was established, and the interaction between SPI and starch in the simulation system was characterized. The result shows that the interaction forces between SPI and germinated brown rice starch were mainly represented by hydrogen bonds, and with the addition of SPI, the crystallinity of starch showed a downward trend. At the same time, when the amount of SPI was 3%, the appearance quality was the best and the specific volume of bread was 1.08 mL g-1. When the amount of SPI was 6%, the texture quality was the best. Compared with the bread without SPI, the hardness of the bread with 6% SPI was reduced by 0.13 times, the springiness was increased by 0.03 times, the color was the most vibrant, the L* value being 1.02 times the original, and the baking loss was reduced to 0.98 times the original. CONCLUSIONS: The interaction force between SPI and germinated brown rice starch and its effect on bread quality were clarified, and these results inform choices about providing a theoretical basis for the subsequent development of higher-quality GFB. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Utilization of Secondary Raw Materials from Rice and Buckwheat Processing for the Production of Enriched Bread: Optimization of Formulation, Physicochemical and Organoleptic Properties, Structural and Mechanical Properties, and Microbiological Safety.

Pursuing enhanced nutritional value in bakery products through technological advancements and new recipes is a promising facet of the food industry. This study focuses on incorporating rice and buckwheat brans, additional raw materials rich in biologically active substances, into bakery products. Utilizing a second-order rotatable plan, optimal ratios were determined-5% rice bran and 10% buckwheat bran. The application of these brans influenced dough and bread quality, reducing sugar content by 5% in dry form and 29% in the fermented brew, potentially aiding in diabetes prevention and cholesterol control. Introducing brans, especially in fermented brew, positively impacted microbiological stability, reducing the risk of mold and potato disease. The developed bread technology using rice and buckwheat brans in fermented brew significantly increased nutritional value, satisfying adult daily protein needs by 31.2%, fats by 15%, and dietary fibers by 18.4%. This innovative approach ensures a sufficient intake of essential vitamins and minerals, showcasing a promising avenue for creating healthier and more nutritious bakery products.

Impact of Sprouted Chickpea Grits and Flour on Dough Rheology and Bread Features.

This study investigated the effects of incorporating sprouted chickpeas, at a 25% enrichment level, into bread production as either grits (90% of particles ≥500 µm) or flour (90% of particles ≤250 µm). The focus was to investigate the role of particle size on dough and bread. In addition to the functional, mixing and pasting properties of ingredients, gluten aggregation, mixing, extensional, leavening, and pasting properties of the blends were assessed during bread-making, as well as bread volume and texture. Chickpea particle size influenced water absorption capacity (1.8 for grits vs. 0.75 g/g for flour) and viscosity (245 for grits vs. 88 BU for flour), with flour showing a greater decrease in both properties. With regard to dough properties, dough development time (16.6 vs. 5.3 min), stability (14.6 vs. 4.6 min), and resistance to extension (319 vs. 235 BU) was higher, whereas extensibility was lower (105 vs. 152 mm) with grits, compared to flour. During bread-making, grits resulted in a higher specific volume (2.5 vs. 2.1 mL/g) and softer crumb (6.2 vs. 17.4 N) at all the considered storage times. In conclusion, sprouted chickpea grits can be effectively used as a new ingredient in bread-making favouring the consumption of chickpea, without compromising product quality.

Evaluating the Impact of Green Coffee Bean Powder on the Quality of Whole Wheat Bread: A Comprehensive Analysis.

The current investigation focuses on the effect of different concentrations of green coffee bean powder (GCBp) on the physicochemical, microbiological, and sensory characteristics of whole wheat bread (WWB). C1 bread formulation (containing 1% GCBp) exhibited the highest loaf volume, suggesting optimal fermentation. Moisture analysis revealed minor alterations in the moisture retention attributes of the bread formulations. Impedance analysis suggested that C1 exhibited the highest impedance with a high degree of material homogeneity. Swelling studies suggested similar swelling properties, except C5 (containing 5% GCBp), which showed the lowest swelling percentage. Furthermore, color and microcolor analysis revealed the highest L* and WI in C1. Conversely, higher concentrations of GCBp reduced the color attributes in other GCBp-containing formulations. FTIR study demonstrated an improved intermolecular interaction in C1 and C2 (containing 2% GCBp) among all. No significant variation in the overall textural parameters was observed in GCBp-introduced formulations, except C2, which showed an improved gumminess. Moreover, the TPC (total phenolic content) and microbial analysis revealed enhanced antioxidant and antimicrobial properties in GCBp-incorporated formulations compared to Control (C0, without GCBp). The sensory evaluation showed an enhanced appearance and aroma in C1 compared to others. In short, C1 showed better physicochemical, biological, and sensory properties than the other formulations.

Technological Properties of Inulin-Enriched Doughs and Breads, Influence on Short-Term Storage and Glycemic Response.

The use of inulin in food is highly appreciated by consumers because of its prebiotic effect. In this study, the effects of increasing additions (5, 10 and 20%) of inulin as a substitute for wheat flour in bread production were investigated with regard to the physical, technological and rheological properties of the flour blends. Inulin reduced the water-binding capacity from 1.4 g/100 g with 0 flour to 0.80 g/100 g with the 20% inulin addition, while there were no statistical differences in the oil-binding capacity. The addition of inulin also influenced the yeast rates, especially in the samples with 5 and 10% addition. On the farinograph, inulin caused a reduction in water absorption (40.75 g/100 g with 20% inulin), an increase in dough development time (18.35 min with 10% inulin) and dough stability (13.10 min with 10% inulin). The mixograph showed a longer kneading time for the sample with 20% inulin (8.70 min) than for the control (4.61 min). In addition, there was an increase in dough firmness and tightness due to the addition of inulin (W: 203 × 10-4 J; P/L: 4.55 for the 20% inulin sample) compared with the control. The physical and technological properties of the loaves were evaluated at time 0 and after 4 days (T4). The addition of inulin reduced the volume of the bread while increasing the weight, albeit with a weight loss at T4 (compared to T0) of 4.8% for the 20% inulin and 14.7% for the control. The addition of inulin caused a darkening of the crust of the enriched bread, proportional to the increase in inulin content. In addition, the inulin content ranged from 0.82 g/100 g in the control to 14.42 g/100 g in the 20% inulin bread, while the predicted glycemic index ranged from 94.52 in the control to 89.39 in the 20% inulin bread. The available data suggest that the formulation with 5% inulin provides the highest performance.

Physicochemical, Antioxidant, Starch Digestibility, and Sensory Properties of Wheat Bread Fortified with Taiwanese Cocoa Bean Shells.

The effects of replacing 5-25% of wheat flour (WF) with Taiwanese cocoa bean shells (CBSs) on the physicochemical, antioxidant, starch digestion, and sensory properties of the bread were studied. The lead (0.18) and cadmium (0.77) contents (mg/kg) of the CBSs were below the Codex Alimentarius specifications for cocoa powder. Ochratoxin A and aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1, and G2) were not detected in the CBSs. The CBSs were rich in dietary fiber (42.9%) and bioactive components and showed good antioxidant capacity. The ash, fat, protein, dietary fiber, crumb a* and c*, hardness, chewiness, total phenols, and antioxidant activities of the bread increased with an increasing CBSs level. The starch hydrolysis rate (45.1-36.49%) of the CBS breads at 180 min was lower than that of the control (49.6%). The predicted glycemic index of the bread (CBS20 and CBS25) with 20-25% of the WF replaced with CBSs was classified as a medium-GI food using white bread as a reference. In the nine-point hedonic test, the overall preference scores were highest for control (6.8) and CBS breads, where CBSs replaced 5-10% of WF, with scores of 7.2 and 6.7. CBS20 supplemented with an additional 20-30% water improved its volume, specific volume, and staling rate, but the overall liking score (6.5-7.2) was not significantly different from the control (p > 0.05). Overall, partially replacing wheat flour with CBSs in the production of baked bread can result in a new medium-GI value food containing more dietary fiber, bioactive compounds, and enhanced antioxidant capacity.

The Effects of Single- or Mixed-Strain Fermentation of Red Bean Sourdough, with or without Wheat Bran, on Bread Making Performance and Its Potential Health Benefits in Mice Model.

The effects of single- (Lactobacillus fermentum) or mixed-strain (Lactobacillus fermentum, Kluyveromyces marxianus) fermentation of red bean with or without wheat bran on sourdough bread quality and nutritional aspects were investigated. The results showed that, compared to unfermented controls, the tannins, phytic acid, and trypsin inhibitor levels were significantly reduced, whereas the phytochemical (TPC, TFC, and gallic acid) and soluble dietary fiber were increased in sourdough. Meanwhile, more outstanding changes were obtained in sourdough following a mixed-strain than single-strain fermentation, which might be associated with its corresponding ß-glucosidase, feruloyl esterase, and phytase activities. An increased specific volume, reduced crumb firmness, and greater sensory evaluation of bread was achieved after mixed-strain fermentation. Moreover, diets containing sourdough, especially those prepared with mixed-strain-fermented red bean with wheat bran, significantly decreased serum pro-inflammatory cytokines levels, and improved the lipid profile, HDL/LDL ratio, glucose tolerance, and insulin sensitivity of mice. Moreover, gut microbiota diversity increased towards beneficial genera (e.g., Bifidobacterium), accompanied with a greater increase in short-chain fatty acid production in mice fed on sourdough-based bread diets compared to their controls and white bread. In conclusion, mixed-strain fermentation's synergistic effect on high fiber-legume substrate improved the baking, sensory quality, and prebiotic effect of bread, leading to potential health benefits in mice.

Insight into konjac glucomannan-retarding deterioration of steamed bread during frozen storage: Quality characteristics, water status, multi-scale structure, and flavor compounds.

Konjac glucomannan (KGM), a water-soluble hydrocolloid, holds considerable potential in the food industry, especially for improving the quality and nutritional properties of frozen products. This study explored the alleviative effect of KGM on the quality characteristics, water status, multi-scale structure, and flavor compounds of steamed bread throughout frozen storage. KGM significantly improved the quality of steamed bread by slowing down the decrease in water content and the increase in water migration while maintaining softness and taste during frozen storage. Notably, KGM also delayed amylopectin retrogradation and starch recrystallization, thus preserving the texture and structure of the steamed bread. At week 3, the microstructure of the steamed bread with 1.0 % KGM remained intact, with the lowest free sulfhydryl content. Additionally, heat map analysis revealed that KGM contributed to flavor retention in steamed bread frozen for 3 weeks. These results indicate that KGM holds promise as an effective cryoprotectant for improving the quality of frozen steamed bread.

Impact of Particle Size on the Physicochemical, Functional, and In Vitro Digestibility Properties of Fava Bean Flour and Bread.

Fava beans, renowned for their nutritional value and sustainable cultivation, are pivotal in various food applications. This study examined the implications of varying the particle size on the functional, physicochemical, and in vitro digestibility properties of fava bean flour. Fava bean was milled into 0.14, 0.50, and 1.0 mm particle sizes using a Ferkar multipurpose knife mill. Physicochemical analyses showed that the 0.14 mm flour had more starch damage, but higher protein and fat contents. Functionality assessments revealed that the finer particle sizes had better foaming properties, swelling power, and gelation behavior than the coarse particle size. Emulsion capacity showed that for all the pH conditions, 1.00 mm particle size flour had a significantly higher (p < 0.05) oil droplet size, while the 0.5 and 0.14 mm flours had smaller and similar oil droplet sizes. Moreover, in vitro digestibility assays resulted in improved starch digestion (p ˂ 0.05) with the increase in flour particle size. Varying the particle size of fava bean flour had less impact on the in vitro digestibility of the bread produced from wheat-fava bean composite flour, with an average of 84%. The findings underscore the critical role of particle size in tailoring fava bean flour for specific culinary purposes and nutritional considerations.