Structural insights into the chloroplast protein import in land plants.

Chloroplast proteins are imported via the translocon at the outer chloroplast membrane (TOC)-translocon at the inner chloroplast membrane (TIC) supercomplex, driven by an ATPase motor. The Ycf2-FtsHi complex has been identified as the chloroplast import motor. However, its assembly and cooperation with the TIC complex during preprotein translocation remain unclear. Here, we present the structures of the Ycf2-FtsHi and TIC complexes from Arabidopsis and an ultracomplex formed between them from Pisum. The Ycf2-FtsHi structure reveals a heterohexameric AAA+ ATPase motor module with characteristic features. Four previously uncharacterized components of Ycf2-FtsHi were identified, which aid in complex assembly and anchoring of the motor module at a tilted angle relative to the membrane. When considering the structures of the TIC complex and the TIC-Ycf2-FtsHi ultracomplex together, it becomes evident that the tilted motor module of Ycf2-FtsHi enables its close contact with the TIC complex, thereby facilitating efficient preprotein translocation. Our study provides valuable structural insights into the chloroplast protein import process in land plants.

Intrinsic Mechanism of CaCl2 Alleviation of H2O2 Inhibition of Pea Primary Root Gravitropism.

Normal root growth is essential for the plant uptake of soil nutrients and water. However, exogenous H2O2 inhibits the gravitropic growth of pea primary roots. It has been shown that CaCl2 application can alleviate H2O2 inhibition, but the exact alleviation mechanism is not clear. Therefore, the present study was carried out by combining the transcriptome and metabolome with a view to investigate in depth the mechanism of action of exogenous CaCl2 to alleviate the inhibition of pea primordial root gravitropism by H2O2. The results showed that the addition of CaCl2 (10 mmol·L-1) under H2O2 stress (150 mmol·L-1) significantly increased the H2O2 and starch content, decreased peroxidase (POD) activity, and reduced the accumulation of sugar metabolites and lignin in pea primary roots. Down-regulated genes regulating peroxidase, respiratory burst oxidase, and lignin synthesis up-regulated PGM1, a key gene for starch synthesis, and activated the calcium and phytohormone signaling pathways. In summary, 10 mmol·L-1 CaCl2 could alleviate H2O2 stress by modulating the oxidative stress response, signal transduction, and starch and lignin accumulation within pea primary roots, thereby promoting root gravitropism. This provides new insights into the mechanism by which CaCl2 promotes the gravitropism of pea primary roots under H2O2 treatment.

Genomic prediction for rust resistance in pea.

Genomic selection (GS) has become an indispensable tool in modern plant breeding, particularly for complex traits. This study aimed to assess the efficacy of GS in predicting rust (Uromyces pisi) resistance in pea (Pisum sativum), using a panel of 320 pea accessions and a set of 26,045 Silico-Diversity Arrays Technology (Silico-DArT) markers. We compared the prediction abilities of different GS models and explored the impact of incorporating marker × environment (M×E) interaction as a covariate in the GBLUP (genomic best linear unbiased prediction) model. The analysis included phenotyping data from both field and controlled conditions. We assessed the predictive accuracies of different cross-validation strategies and compared the efficiency of using single traits versus a multi-trait index, based on factor analysis and ideotype-design (FAI-BLUP), which combines traits from controlled conditions. The GBLUP model, particularly when modified to include M×E interactions, consistently outperformed other models, demonstrating its suitability for traits affected by complex genotype-environment interactions (GEI). The best predictive ability (0.635) was achieved using the FAI-BLUP approach within the Bayesian Lasso (BL) model. The inclusion of M×E interactions significantly enhanced prediction accuracy across diverse environments in GBLUP models, although it did not markedly improve predictions for non-phenotyped lines. These findings underscore the variability of predictive abilities due to GEI and the effectiveness of multi-trait approaches in addressing complex traits. Overall, our study illustrates the potential of GS, especially when employing a multi-trait index like FAI-BLUP and accounting for M×E interactions, in pea breeding programs focused on rust resistance.

The vacuolar sulfate transporter PsSULTR4 is a key determinant of seed yield and protein composition in pea.

Pea is a grain legume crop with a high potential to accelerate the food transition due to its high seed protein content and relatively well-balanced amino acid composition. The critical role of external sulfur (S) supply in determining seed yield and seed quality in pea makes it essential to understand the impact of whole plant S management on the trade-off between these two traits. Here, we investigated the physiological relevance of vacuolar sulfate remobilization by targeting PsSULTR4, the only pea sulfate transporter showing substantial similarity to the vacuolar sulfate exporter AtSULTR4;1. Five mutations in PsSULTR4 were identified by TILLING (Targeting Induced Local Lesions IN Genomes), two of which, a loss of function (W78*) and a missense (E568K), significantly decreased seed yield under S deprivation. We demonstrate that PsSULTR4 triggers S distribution from source tissues, especially lower leaves, to reproductive organs to maintain seed yield under S deficiency. Under sufficient S supply, sultr4 seeds display lower levels of the S-rich storage protein PA1 at maturity. They also overaccumulate sulfate in the endosperm at the onset of seed filling. These findings uncover a role of PsSULTR4 in the remobilization of vacuolar sulfate during embryo development, allowing the efficient synthesis of S-rich proteins. Our study uncovers that PsSULTR4 functions (i) in source tissues to remobilize stored vacuolar sulfate for seed production under low S availability and (ii) in developing seeds well supplied with S to fine-tune sulfate remobilization from the endosperm as a critical control point for storage activities in the embryo.

Comparative metabolomic analysis of mouse plasma in response to different dietary conditions.

Plasma metabolites offer insights into aging processes and aging-related biomarkers. Here, the dietary effects of various functional foods on older adult mice were evaluated using metabolomic techniques. Fifty-week-old mice were divided into four groups (n = 4 each) and fed either a normal diet (AC) or the diets from Triticum aestivum sprout (TA), Schisandra chinensis (SZ), or Pisum sativum sprout (PS) extracts. Additionally, a group of 8-week-old mice fed a normal diet (YC; n = 5) was included for the comparison. The PS group had a significantly lower free fatty acid content and higher ornithine, proline, citric acid, and oxalic acid contents than the AC group. The PS group also showed reduced oxidative stress and muscle damage, suggesting the higher anti-aging efficacy of P. sativum sprouts than the other diets. These findings suggest plasma metabolite profiling is an effective tool to assess the anti-aging effects of functional foods. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10068-023-01479-8.

Exopolysaccharide is required by Paraburkholderia phytofirmans PsJN to confer drought-stress tolerance in pea.

Paraburkholderia phytofirmans PsJN is a plant symbiotic bacterium that can colonize a broad spectrum of plant hosts and frequently shows beneficial effects on plant growth. Exopolysaccharide (EPS) is known to be important in plant-bacteria interactions. Previously, we reported that EPS is required for PsJN to survive from drought stress and colonize in pea (Pisum sativum) under drought condition. However, whether EPS is necessary for PsJN to promote plant growth remains unknown. In this work, a comparative study was conducted between the wild-type PsJN and its ∆bceQ mutant that lacks EPS to investigate the role of EPS in PsJN to confer drought-stress tolerance on pea plant. Our results showed that wild type PsJN, but not the ∆bceQ mutant, promoted pea seed germination and seedlings growth under drought stress. Pea plants inoculated with the wild type PsJN had a higher level of drought tolerance, as shown by a better vegetative growth and enhanced nodule formation, than plants inoculated with the ∆bceQ mutant. Moreover, EPS plays a role in the plant colonization under drought stress, because the ∆bceQ mutant was unable to colonize pea seeds and roots as effectively as the wild type PsJN. Further, expression of the EPS biosynthesis genes in the bceOVN operon of the wild type PsJN was induced by the presence of glucose. Overall, this study demonstrated that PsJN can promote pea plant growth under drought conditions and EPS is required for PsJN to confer beneficial effects to host plant.

Molecular mechanisms of neutron radiation dose effects on M1 generation peas.

The dose effect of radiation has long been a topic of concern, but the molecular mechanism behind it is still unclear. In this study, dried pea seeds were irradiated with 252Cf fission neutron source. Through analyzing the transcriptome and proteome of M1 generation pea (Pisum sativum L.) leaves, we studied the molecular rule and mechanism of neutron dose effect. Our results showed three important rules of global gene expression in the studied dose range. The rule closely related to the neutron absorbed dose at the transcription and translation levels is: the greater the difference in neutron absorbed dose between two radiation treatment groups, the greater the difference in differential expression between the two groups and the control group. We also obtained important sensitive metabolic pathways of neutron radiation, as well as related key genes. Furthermore, the overall molecular regulation mechanism of dose effect was revealed based on the main functional items obtained. Our research results can be applied to appropriate radiation dose estimation and agricultural production practice.

Dynamic response of essential amino acid biosynthesis in Buchnera aphidicola to supplement sub-optimal host nutrition.

The endosymbiotic bacterium Buchnera aphidicola allows its host Acyrthosiphon pisum to utilise a nutritionally limited phloem sap diet without significant mortality by providing essential amino acids (EAAs), which it biosynthesises de novo via complex pathways consisting of multiple enzymes. Previous studies have reported how non-essential amino acids (NEAAs) provided by the host are utilised by B. aphidicola, along with how genes within the biosynthetic pathways respond to amino acid deficiency. Although the effect on B. aphidicola gene expression upon the removal of a single EAA and multiple NEAAs from the A. pisum diet has been reported, little is known about the effects of the complete simultaneous removal of multiple EAAs, especially branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs). To investigate this, A. pisum was provided with amino acid deficient diets ilv- (lacking isoleucine, leucine, valine) or thra- (lacking threonine, methionine, lysine). Due to their involvement in the production of several amino acids, the expression of genes ilvC, ilvD (both involved in isoleucine, leucine and valine biosynthesis) and thrA (involved in threonine, methionine and lysine biosynthesis) was analysed and the expression of trpC (involved in tryptophan biosynthesis) was used as a control. Survival was reduced significantly when A. pisum was reared on ilv- or thra- (P < 0.001 and P = 0.000 respectively) compared to optimal artificial diet and was significantly lower on ilv- (P < 0.001) than thra-. This is likely attributed to the EAAs absent from ilv- being required at higher concentrations for aphid growth, than those EAAs absent from thra-. Expression of ilvC and ilvD were upregulated 2.49- and 2.08-fold (respectively) and thrA expression increased 2.35- and 2.12-fold when A. pisum was reared on ilv- and thra- (respectively). The surprisingly large upregulation of thrA when reared on ilv- is likely due to threonine being an intermediate in isoleucine biosynthesis. Expression of trpC was not affected by rearing on either of the two amino acid deficient diets. To our knowledge this study has shown, for the first time, how genes within the biosynthetic pathways of an endosymbiont respond to the simultaneous complete omission of multiple EAAs as well as all three BCAAs (leucine, isoleucine, valine), from the host diet.

The Long-Distance Transport of Jasmonates in Salt-Treated Pea Plants and Involvement of Lipid Transfer Proteins in the Process.

The adaption of plants to stressful environments depends on long-distance responses in plant organs, which themselves are remote from sites of perception of external stimuli. Jasmonic acid (JA) and its derivatives are known to be involved in plants' adaptation to salinity. However, to our knowledge, the transport of JAs from roots to shoots has not been studied in relation to the responses of shoots to root salt treatment. We detected a salt-induced increase in the content of JAs in the roots, xylem sap, and leaves of pea plants related to changes in transpiration. Similarities between the localization of JA and lipid transfer proteins (LTPs) around vascular tissues were detected with immunohistochemistry, while immunoblotting revealed the presence of LTPs in the xylem sap of pea plants and its increase with salinity. Furthermore, we compared the effects of exogenous MeJA and salt treatment on the accumulation of JAs in leaves and their impact on transpiration. Our results indicate that salt-induced changes in JA concentrations in roots and xylem sap are the source of accumulation of these hormones in leaves leading to associated changes in transpiration. Furthermore, they suggest the possible involvement of LTPs in the loading/unloading of JAs into/from the xylem and its xylem transport.

Lipopeptides from Bacillus velezensis ZLP-101 and their mode of action against bean aphids Acyrthosiphon pisum Harris.

BACKGROUND: Natural products are important sources for the discovery of new biopesticides to control the worldwide destructive pests Acyrthosiphon pisum Harris. Here, insecticidal substances were discovered and characterized from the secondary metabolites of the bio-control microorganism Bacillus velezensis strain ZLP-101, as informed by whole-genome sequencing and analysis. RESULTS: The genome was annotated, revealing the presence of four potentially novel gene clusters and eight known secondary metabolite synthetic gene clusters. Crude extracts, prepared through ammonium sulfate precipitation, were used to evaluate the effects of strain ZLP-101 on Acyrthosiphon pisum Harris aphid pests via exposure experiments. The half lethal concentration (LC50) of the crude extract from strain ZLP-101 against aphids was 411.535 mg/L. Preliminary exploration of the insecticidal mechanism revealed that the crude extract affected aphids to a greater extent through gastric poisoning than through contact. Further, the extracts affected enzymatic activities, causing holes to form in internal organs along with deformation, such that normal physiological activities could not be maintained, eventually leading to death. Isolation and purification of extracellular secondary metabolites were conducted in combination with mass spectrometry analysis to further identify the insecticidal components of the crude extracts. A total of 15 insecticidal active compounds were identified including iturins, fengycins, surfactins, and spergualins. Further insecticidal experimentation revealed that surfactin, iturin, and fengycin all exhibited certain aphidicidal activities, and the three exerted synergistic lethal effects. CONCLUSIONS: This study improved the available genomic resources for B. velezensis and serves as a foundation for comprehensive studies of the insecticidal mechanism by Bacillus velezensis ZLP-101 in addition to the active components within biological control strains.

Genome-Wide Association Studies on Resistance to Pea Weevil: Identification of Novel Sources of Resistance and Associated Markers.

Little resistance to the pea weevil insect pest (Bruchus pisorum) is available in pea (Pisum sativum) cultivars, highlighting the need to search for sources of resistance in Pisum germplasm and to decipher the genetic basis of resistance. To address this need, we screened the response to pea weevil in a Pisum germplasm collection (324 accession, previously genotyped) under field conditions over four environments. Significant variation for weevil seed infestation (SI) was identified, with resistance being frequent in P. fulvum, followed by P. sativum ssp. elatius, P. abyssinicum, and P. sativum ssp. humile. SI tended to be higher in accessions with lighter seed color. SI was also affected by environmental factors, being favored by high humidity during flowering and hampered by warm winter temperatures and high evapotranspiration during and after flowering. Merging the phenotypic and genotypic data allowed genome-wide association studies (GWAS) yielding 73 markers significantly associated with SI. Through the GWAS models, 23 candidate genes were found associated with weevil resistance, highlighting the interest of five genes located on chromosome 6. These included gene 127136761 encoding squalene epoxidase; gene 127091639 encoding a transcription factor MYB SRM1; gene 127097033 encoding a 60S ribosomal protein L14; gene 127092211, encoding a BolA-like family protein, which, interestingly, was located within QTL BpLD.I, earlier described as conferring resistance to weevil in pea; and gene 127096593 encoding a methyltransferase. These associated genes offer valuable potential for developing pea varieties resistant to Bruchus spp. and efficient utilization of genomic resources through marker-assisted selection (MAS).

A Lexicon of Descriptive Sensory Terms for Peas (Pisum sativum L.): A Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND: The popularity of peas (Pisum sativum L.) and pea-derived products is constantly growing globally and is estimated to continue to do so at an average annual rate of 12%. This is partially stimulated by the increase in the consumption of meat analogues and the popularisation of animal-protein-free diets. Peas are considered a great source of protein and dietary fibre and are not depicted as allergenic, making them a good replacement ingredient for other legumes such as soy. Peas are also considered good for the environment, mainly due to their nitrogen fixation capabilities. Despite the above benefits, sensory quality is still a limiting factor in increasing consumer acceptance of peas and pea-derived products. RESULTS: This review has been conducted in accordance with the Joanna Brings Institute's guidance for systematic literature reviews. The search has been conducted on the descriptive sensory terms for Pisum sativum L., where the objectives of the study were to select, present, and analyse the identified descriptive sensory terms for peas found throughout the academic literature. The reviewers have screened 827 articles, of which 12 were eligible for data extraction. Out of the 12 articles, 205 descriptive sensory terms were identified. Those were divided into five categories: smell/odour (27%), flavour (51%), taste (10%), texture (8%), and visual (4%). These included results from sensory analyses by trained/untrained panels and instrumental analyses of texture and of volatile compounds. CONCLUSION: The identified descriptive sensory terms for Pisum sativum L. could be used for future descriptive sensory evaluation of peas and other legumes, making the process less time consuming. The full list could be used for the initial sensory panel training and then adapted based on the frequency of the depicted terms that meet the criteria for the developed lexicon.

Genetic Characterization of Rhizobium spp. Strains in an Organic Field Pea (Pisum sativum L.) Field in Lithuania.

Biological nitrogen fixation in legume plants depends on the diversity of rhizobia present in the soil. Rhizobial strains exhibit specificity towards host plants and vary in their capacity to fix nitrogen. The increasing interest in rhizobia diversity has prompted studies of their phylogenetic relations. Molecular identification of Rhizobium is quite complex, requiring multiple gene markers to be analysed to distinguish strains at the species level or to predict their host plant. In this research, 50 rhizobia isolates were obtained from the root nodules of five different Pisum sativum L. genotypes ("Bagoo", "Respect", "Astronaute", "Lina DS", and "Egle DS"). All genotypes were growing in the same field, where ecological farming practices were applied, and no commercial rhizobia inoculants were used. The influence of rhizobial isolates on pea root nodulation and dry biomass accumulation was determined. 16S rRNA gene, two housekeeping genes recA and atpD, and symbiotic gene nodC were analysed to characterize rhizobia population. The phylogenetic analysis of 16S rRNA gene sequences showed that 46 isolates were linked to Rhizobium leguminosarum; species complex 1 isolate was identified as Rhizobium nepotum, and the remaining 3 isolates belonged to Rahnella spp., Paenarthrobacter spp., and Peribacillus spp. genera. RecA and atpD gene analysis showed that the 46 isolates identified as R. leguminosarum clustered into three genospecies groups (B), (E) and (K). Isolates that had the highest influence on plant dry biomass accumulation clustered into the (B) group. NodC gene phylogenetic analysis clustered 46 R. leguminosarum isolates into 10 groups, and all isolates were assigned to the R. leguminosarum sv. viciae.

Belowground plant competition: uncoupling root response strategies of peas.

Belowground plant competition has been shown to induce varying responses, from increases to decreases in root biomass allocation or in directional root placement. Such inconsistencies could result from the fact that root allocation and directional growth were seldom studied together, even though they might represent different strategies. Moreover, variations in belowground responses might be due to different size hierarchies between plants, but this hypothesis has not been studied previously. In a greenhouse rhizobox experiment, we examined the way both root allocation and directional root placement of Pisum sativum are affected by the size and density of Festuca glauca neighbours, and by nutrient distribution. We found that root allocation of P. sativum increased with the density and size of F. glauca. By contrast, directional root placement was unaffected by neighbour size and increased either towards or away from neighbours when nutrients were patchily or uniformly distributed, respectively. These results demonstrate that directional root placement under competition is contingent on the distribution of soil resources. Interestingly, our results suggest that root allocation and directional placement might be uncoupled strategies that simultaneously provide stress tolerance and spatial responsiveness to neighbours, thus highlighting the importance of measuring both when studying belowground plant competition.

Genome-Wide Identification and Expression Analysis of the PHD Finger Gene Family in Pea (Pisum sativum).

The plant homeodomain finger (PHD finger) protein, a type of zinc finger protein extensively distributed in eukaryotes, plays diverse roles in regulating plant growth and development. While PHD finger proteins have been identified in various species, their functions remain largely unexplored in pea (Pisum sativum). In this study, we identified 84 members of the PHD finger gene family in pea, which displayed an uneven distribution across seven chromosomes. Through a comprehensive analysis using data from Arabidopsis thaliana and Medicago truncatula, we categorized the PHD finger proteins into 20 subfamilies via phylogenetic tree analysis. Each subfamily exhibited distinct variations in terms of quantity, genetic structure, conserved domains, and physical and chemical properties. Collinearity analysis revealed conserved evolutionary relationships among the PHD finger genes across the three different species. Furthermore, we identified the conserved and important roles of the subfamily M members in anther development. RT-qPCR and in situ hybridization revealed high expression of the pea subfamily M members PsPHD11 and PsPHD16 in microspores and the tapetum layer. In conclusion, this analysis of the PHD finger family in pea provides valuable guidance for future research on the biological roles of PHD finger proteins in pea and other leguminous plants.

Assessment of Various Nanoprimings for Boosting Pea Germination and Early Growth in Both Optimal and Drought-Stressed Environments.

One of the main climate change-related variables limiting agricultural productivity that ultimately leads to food insecurity appears to be drought. With the use of a recently discovered nanopriming technology, seeds can endure various abiotic challenges. To improve seed quality and initial growth of 8-day-old field pea seedlings (cv. NS Junior) under optimal and artificial drought (PEG-induced) laboratory conditions, this study aimed to assess the efficacy of priming with three different nanomaterials: Nanoplant Ultra (Co, Mn, Cu, Fe, Zn, Mo, and Se), Nanoplant Ca-Si (Ca, Si, B, and Fe), and Nanoplant Sulfur (S). The findings indicate that nanopriming seed treatments have a positive impact on seed quality indicators, early plant growth, and drought resilience in field pea plants established in both optimal and drought-stressed conditions. Nevertheless, all treatments showed a positive effect, but their modes of action varied. Nanoplant Ultra proved to be the most effective under optimal conditions, whereas Nanoplant Ca-Si and Nanoplant Sulfur were the most efficient under drought stress. After a field evaluation, the examined comprehensive nanomaterials may be utilized as priming agents for pea seed priming to boost seed germination, initial plant growth, and crop productivity under various environmental conditions.

afila, the origin and nature of a major innovation in the history of pea breeding.

The afila (af) mutation causes the replacement of leaflets by a branched mass of tendrils in the compound leaves of pea - Pisum sativum L. This mutation was first described in 1953, and several reports of spontaneous af mutations and induced mutants with a similar phenotype exist. Despite widespread introgression into breeding material, the nature of af and the origin of the alleles used remain unknown. Here, we combine comparative genomics with reverse genetic approaches to elucidate the genetic determinants of af. We also investigate haplotype diversity using a set of AfAf and afaf cultivars and breeding lines and molecular markers linked to seven consecutive genes. Our results show that deletion of two tandemly arranged genes encoding Q-type Cys(2)His(2) zinc finger transcription factors, PsPALM1a and PsPALM1b, is responsible for the af phenotype in pea. Eight haplotypes were identified in the af-harbouring genomic region on chromosome 2. These haplotypes differ in the size of the deletion, covering more or less genes. Diversity at the af locus is valuable for crop improvement and sheds light on the history of pea breeding for improved standing ability. The results will be used to understand the function of PsPALM1a/b and to transfer the knowledge for innovation in related crops.

The Janus kinase/signal transducers and activators of transcription (JAK/STAT) pathway contributes to the defense against bacterial infection in the pea aphid.

The Janus kinase/signal transducers and activators of transcription (JAK/STAT) signaling is activated by infections of bacteria, fungi, viruses and parasites and mediated cellular and humoral immune responses. In the pea aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum little is known about the function of JAK/STAT signaling in its immune system. In this study, we first showed that expression of genes in the JAK/STAT signaling, including the receptors Domeless1/2, Janus kinase (JAK) and transcriptional factor Stat92E, is up-regulated upon bacteria Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus and fungus Beauveria bassiana infections. After knockdown of expression of these genes by means of dsRNA injection, the aphids harbored more bacteria and suffered more death after infected with E. coli and S. aureus, but showed no significant change after B. bassiana infection. Our study suggests the JAK/STAT signaling contributes to the defense against bacterial infection in the pea aphid.

Transgenerational plasticity in aphids reared in a poor-resource environment.

The changing environmental conditions can affect insect biology over multiple generations and phenotypic plasticity is important for coping with these changes. Transgenerational plasticity occurs when the environment in which the parents developed influences the plastic response of the offspring phenotype. In the present study, the plastic effects of resource limitation on important life history traits such as body size, fecundity, survival, and resistance to starvation of the pea aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum were investigated over two generations. This study focused on understanding how resource limitation can determine an adaptive expression of maternal effects and transgenerational plasticity in fitness-related traits. Aphids showed phenotypic plasticity for the life history traits investigated, as they performed better when grown in an optimal environment than in a resource-poor one. Also, aphids had a poorer performance if their mothers were raised in a resource-poor environment. The effects of transgenerational plasticity were observed only in response to resistance to starvation, through increased survival in the offspring of the mother reared in a resource-poor environment, suggesting an evolutionary bet-hedging strategy. The results of this study showed that the effects of adaptive transgenerational plasticity may be partially masked in stressful environments, where developmental problems instead predominate. More information on the transgenerational response to resource limitation across generations can contribute to a better understanding of aphid biology.