Mission Architecture Using the SpaceX Starship Vehicle to Enable a Sustained Human Presence on Mars.

A main goal of human space exploration is to develop humanity into a multi-planet species where civilization extends beyond planet Earth. Establishing a self-sustaining human presence on Mars is key to achieving this goal. In situ resource utilization (ISRU) on Mars is a critical component to enabling humans on Mars to both establish long-term outposts and become self-reliant. This article focuses on a mission architecture using the SpaceX Starship as cargo and crew vehicles for the journey to Mars. The first Starships flown to Mars will be uncrewed and will provide unprecedented opportunities to deliver ∼100 metric tons of cargo to the martian surface per mission and conduct robotic precursor work to enable a sustained and self-reliant human presence on Mars. We propose that the highest priority activities for early uncrewed Starships include pre-placement of supplies, developing infrastructure, testing of key technologies, and conducting resource prospecting to map and characterize water ice for future ISRU purposes.

Electricity, Computing Hardware, and Internet Infrastructures in Health Facilities in Sierra Leone: Field Mapping Study.

BACKGROUND: Years of health information system investment in many countries have facilitated service delivery, surveillance, reporting, and monitoring. Electricity, computing hardware, and internet networks are vital for health facility-based information systems. Availability of these infrastructures at health facilities is crucial for achieving national digital health visions. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to gain insight into the state of computing hardware, electricity, and connectivity infrastructure at health facilities in Sierra Leone using a representative sample. METHODS: Stratified sampling of 72 (out of 1284) health facilities distributed in all districts of Sierra Leone was performed, factoring in the rural-urban divide, digital health activity, health facility type, and health facility ownership. Enumerators visited each health facility over a 2-week period. RESULTS: Among the 72 surveyed health facilities, 59 (82%) do not have institutionally provided internet. Among the 15 Maternal and Child Health Posts, as a type of primary health care unit (PHU), 9 (60%) use solar energy as their only electricity source and the other 6 (40%) have no electricity source. Similarly, among the 13 hospitals, 5 (38%) use a generator as a primary electricity source. All hospitals have at least one functional computer, although only 7 of the 13 hospitals have four or more functional computers. Similarly, only 2 of the 59 (3%) PHUs have one computer each, and 37 (63%) of the PHUs have one tablet device each. We consider this health care computing infrastructure mapping to be representative with a 95% confidence level within an 11% margin of error. Two-thirds of the PHUs have only alternate solar electricity, only 10 of the 72 surveyed health facilities have functional official internet, and most use suboptimal computing hardware. Overall, 43% of the surveyed health facilities believe that inadequate electricity is the biggest threat to digitization. Similarly, 16 (22%) of the 72 respondents stated that device theft is a primary hindrance to digitization. CONCLUSIONS: Electricity provision for off-electricity-grid health facilities using alternative and renewable energy sources is emerging. The current trend where GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication) service providers provide the internet to all health facilities may change to other promising alternatives. This study provides evidence of the critical infrastructure gaps in health facilities in Sierra Leone.

Lacuna in the updated planetary protection policy and international law.

The Planetary Protection Policy (PPP) has proclaimed the lofty ideal "All the planets, all the time." Originally formulated as Planetary Quarantine Requirements (PQR), the planetary protection policy imposed strict decontamination standards for spacecraft during the initial period of interplanetary exploration. The policy properly has been seen as a work in progress, continuously open to consideration of new data, and subject to periodic re-examination and question with a view toward improvement to better meet the goals of science. This process has led to several revisions of the PPP to improve, simplify and clarify the standards. In keeping with past practice, the policy was recently revised in light of new data and experience, and the current update is pending before the COSPAR Bureau and Council for review and approval. Specific changes to the PPP add Enceladus to the group of target bodies within the solar system subject to heightened protective measures, and modify the provisions regarding the establishment of special regions on Mars. These new updates mark another important development in the evolution of the PPP. The PQR and the PPP were based on the precept that outbound spacecraft to celestial bodies should not contaminate natural celestial environments with Earth organisms. Therefore, the policy generally requires that certain missions, particularly to target bodies that could harbor evidence of past or current alien life, take active measures to decontaminate the spacecraft. Nevertheless, recent and proposed missions demonstrate that significant gaps remain in the policy. Instead of enhancing decontamination the policy actually promotes purposely and intentionally enlarging the number of potentially contaminating Earth organisms carried by a spacecraft that could reach celestial bodies, including those bodies which are subject to active decontamination requirements. Thus, even with the new updates, the PPP may not be fully consistent with the international obligations of the Outer Space Treaty, and the continued existence of the entire PPP policy could be in jeopardy. This article discusses the flight characteristics of two specific missions, one launched and one in development, which are consistent with the PPP but nonetheless pose a substantial risk of biological contamination of celestial bodies. The manner in which the risks can be reduced is identified, and suggestions are made to close some of the gaps that remain in the PPP to comply with international law.

An Efficient Approach for Mars Sample Return Using Emerging Commercial Capabilities.

Mars Sample Return is the highest priority science mission for the next decade as recommended by the 2011 Decadal Survey of Planetary Science [1]. This article presents the results of a feasibility study for a Mars Sample Return mission that efficiently uses emerging commercial capabilities expected to be available in the near future. The motivation of our study was the recognition that emerging commercial capabilities might be used to perform Mars Sample Return with an Earth-direct architecture, and that this may offer a desirable simpler and lower cost approach. The objective of the study was to determine whether these capabilities can be used to optimize the number of mission systems and launches required to return the samples, with the goal of achieving the desired simplicity. All of the major element required for the Mars Sample Return mission are described. Mission system elements were analyzed with either direct techniques or by using parametric mass estimating relationships. The analysis shows the feasibility of a complete and closed Mars Sample Return mission design based on the following scenario: A SpaceX Falcon Heavy launch vehicle places a modified version of a SpaceX Dragon capsule, referred to as "Red Dragon", onto a Trans Mars Injection trajectory. The capsule carries all the hardware needed to return to Earth Orbit samples collected by a prior mission, such as the planned NASA Mars 2020 sample collection rover. The payload includes a fully fueled Mars Ascent Vehicle; a fueled Earth Return Vehicle, support equipment, and a mechanism to transfer samples from the sample cache system onboard the rover to the Earth Return Vehicle. The Red Dragon descends to land on the surface of Mars using Supersonic Retropropulsion. After collected samples are transferred to the Earth Return Vehicle, the single-stage Mars Ascent Vehicle launches the Earth Return Vehicle from the surface of Mars to a Mars phasing orbit. After a brief phasing period, the Earth Return Vehicle performs a Trans Earth Injection burn. Once near Earth, the Earth Return Vehicle performs Earth and lunar swing-bys and is placed into a Lunar Trailing Orbit - an Earth orbit, at lunar distance. A retrieval mission then performs a rendezvous with the Earth Return Vehicle, retrieves the sample container, and breaks the chain of contact with Mars by transferring the sample into a sterile and secure container. With the sample contained, the retrieving spacecraft makes a controlled Earth re-entry preventing any unintended release of Martian materials into the Earth's biosphere. The mission can start in any one of three Earth to Mars launch opportunities, beginning in 2022.