Temperature as an effective biosecurity tool against invasive snakes.

The application of thermal treatments could serve as a biosecurity tool to avert snake introduction, which often leads to irreversible ecological impacts. Here, we tested the applicability of conductive heating and thermal fumigation to prevent the spread of the California kingsnake (Lampropeltis californiae), a damaging species established on the island of Gran Canaria, likely to reach other vulnerable regions, and included among the most concerning invasive species of the European Union. We exposed 24 individuals to a thermal gradient to determine species selected temperatures, range of preferred temperatures and voluntary thermal maximum and used other 24 individuals to analyse their response to conductive heating, thermal fumigation and control (no heat) treatments. Lampropeltis californiae selected temperatures of 27.80 ± 1.05 °C (ranging 26.86 °C ± 1.21 °C to 28.68 °C ± 1.25 °C) and a voluntary thermal maximum of 32.50 ± 3.69 °C. Conductive heating and thermal fumigation performed equally well, inducing the exit of 83.33% and 91.67% of all individuals after 14.36 ± 9.25 min and 11.13 ± 8.60 min of exposition, and at a body temperature of 35.66 ± 3.53 °C and 35.57 ± 2.41 °C, respectively. Control treatments produced the exit of 29.17% of all individuals, which came out of the box in 24.80 ± 8.83 min and at a body temperature of 28.60 ± 1.38 °C. Thermal treatments could serve as an effective tool to prevent the inadvertent transportation of L. californiae and other invasive snakes threatening numerous regions around the globe.

A longitudinal study of the dynamics of Mycoplasma bovis antibody status in primiparous cows and bulk tank milk in Swedish dairy herds.

Mycoplasma (M.) bovis is an important pathogen causing pneumonia, mastitis, and arthritis in cattle all over the world entailing reduced animal welfare and economic losses. In this longitudinal study, we investigated the presence of M. bovis antibodies in bulk tank milk (BTM) and in milk from primiparous (PP) cows at 4 sampling occasions over 2 years. Herd characteristics associated with a positive antibody test result in PP cows were investigated. The participating dairy herds (n = 149) were situated in southern Sweden, samples were collected and analyzed with ID Screen antibody ELISA. Information on herd characteristics was retrieved from the national Dairy Herd Improvement database. To identify herd characteristics associated with the presence of antibodies in PP cows, mixed linear regression with herd and sample as random factors were used. The apparent herd-level prevalence of M. bovis infection based on antibodies in BTM was 17% but with the addition of PP cows the prevalence increased to 28%. The results showed that larger herds and introduction of cattle was associated with higher antibody levels in PP cows. In conclusion, this study showed a clear difference in the apparent prevalence of M. bovis infection based on antibodies in BTM or in PP cows, the no. of positive herds were almost doubled when including PP cows. This motivates repeated sampling of a few PP cows to find newly infected herds in an early stage. Finally, the results showed that introduction of cattle influences the level of M. bovis antibodies. This is important in the control and prevention of further spread of the infection. It is essential for free herds to know their M. bovis status and antibody testing is highly recommended if introducing cattle.

Development of a center for automated equipment processing to transform the research enterprise configuration.

The strategy of centralizing equipment sanitation and processing was developed by a top-tier public university to address the growing physical infrastructure and human resource challenges of its expanding in-vivo research enterprise. Subsequently, a center for automated equipment processing physically separate from all animal research facilities was developed and has operated consistently since 2016. The facility incorporates systems such as process automation to sanitize and sterilize equipment as efficiently as possible. Analysis of the differences between the new centralized and old distributed research enterprise configurations shows a total estimated fiscal benefit of almost US$54 m to date projected out to US$124 m through 2028. Utility consumption of operations over nine years in the new configuration was estimated to be decreased by over 125 million gallons of water, 14 million gallons of chilled water, 121 million pounds of steam, and almost 3.6 million kilowatts of electricity, with consumption savings significantly increased projected out to 2028. Additional operational and organizational benefits as well as direct research benefits were identified. The new configuration has functioned for nine years without detectable cross contamination within the research enterprise thus providing evidence that the location of equipment processing can be less of a "microbial" risk factor than previously attributed.

Evaluation of ATP bioluminescence for rapid determination of farrowing room cleanliness after pressure washing at a commercial sow farm.

Rotavirus and other pathogenic microorganisms are known to cause scours, respiratory infection, and increased mortality, spread from pig to pig via contaminated equipment, insuffcient washing, and improper disinfection processes in farrowing rooms on commercial sow farms. Pig producers have adopted cleaning procedures and biosecurity policies as an attempt to ensure farrowing rooms are free of infectious organisms before the next group of sows is introduced. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) bioluminescence has been used in other industries to provide real-time feedback on surface cleanliness through the detection of ATP from organic sources. That technology may provide producers a way of objectively characterizing a farrowing room's suitability for a new group of sows to be moved into the farrowing room. Three ATP luminometers (Charm Sciences novaLUM II-X, 3M Clean Trace, and Neogen AccuPoint) were used to estimate relationships between ATP bioluminescence relative light units (RLU) and coliform plate counts (CPC). Five farrowing crate locations and the room entryway floor were swabbed to determine locations within a farrowing crate that can accurately estimate room cleanliness. Coliform plate counts were strongly correlated with Charm novaLUM II-X RLU (r = 0.70, P < 0.01). The Clean-Trace CPCs and RLU (r = 0.48, P < 0.01) were moderately correlated. There was a weak correlation between CPCs and AccuPoint RLU (r = 0.32, P < 0.01). The greatest area of surface contamination was the entryway floor and the sow feeder. Because CPCs and luminometer RLU were correlated, statistical process control charts were developed to provide cleanliness thresholds based on RLU values. Based on an adjusted 3σ from the mean RLU critical limit, 7.7% of crates for the Charm novaLUM II-X, 10.6% of crates for the 3M Clean Trace, and 0% of crates for the Neogen AccuPoint would have failed the critical limit for the sow feeder cleanliness thresholds. Using a similar approach, 11.4% of crates for the Charm novaLUM II-X, 10.5% of crates for the 3M Clean Trace, and 15.2% of crates for the Neogen AccuPoint would have failed the critical limit for the crate sorting bar cleanliness thresholds. These data suggest that ATP bioluminescence may be a reliable method to monitor cleaning effectiveness in farrowing rooms on commercial sow farms. Bioluminescence is a monitoring tool that should be used in conjunction with periodic microbial validation to monitor procedures for cleaning and disinfection.

Shift in potential pathogenic bacteria during permafrost degradation on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.

Permafrost acts as a potential pathogen reservoir. With accelerating climate change and intensifying permafrost degradation, the release of these pathogens poses significant threats to ecosystems and public health. However, the changes in pathogenic communities during permafrost degradation remain unclear. This study utilized quantitative PCR and Illumina high-throughput sequencing to analyze the composition and quantities of potential pathogenic bacteria in four types of permafrost soil on the northeast edge of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP): sub-stable permafrost (SSP), transition permafrost (TP), unstable permafrost (UP), and extremely unstable permafrost (EUP). The results showed that during permafrost degradation, the quantity of potential pathogenic bacteria decreased from 7.8 × 106 to 3.1 × 106 copies/g. Both the Richness and Shannon indices initially declined from SSP, to TP, UP, and then began to rise when permafrost degraded to EUP. A total of 216 potential pathogenic bacterial species were identified, including 166 animal pathogens, 28 zoonotic pathogens, and 22 plant pathogens. The pathogenic community intergroup differences (ANOSIM), unique taxa, and dominant pathogen analysis indicated the significant changes in pathogenic communities during permafrost degradation. The potential pathogenic community was significantly influenced by non-pathogenic bacterial communities (Procrustes analysis), with soil moisture being the primary environmental factor, followed by TDS, soil organic carbon, and total nitrogen. SourceTracker2 analysis indicated that the majority of potential pathogenic bacteria in the soil originated from external sources, only a small portion coming from the permafrost itself. These findings suggest that a large number of pathogens were released into the environment while also preserving amount from external sources. It elucidates that each stage of permafrost degradation presents unique biosecurity risks. This study highlights the release and redistribution of pathogenic bacteria associated with the potential public health risks. It provides the crucial insights into the ecological dynamics of permafrost degradation, emphasizing the need for ongoing monitoring and proactive management strategies.

Practical Questions for Securing Nucleic Acid Synthesis.

Introduction: Affordable and accurate nucleic acid synthesis is foundational to modern biotechnology, but raises security concerns because it facilitates the construction of pathogens and other potentially dangerous biological agents. Nucleic acid synthesis screening can reduce the risk of providing potentially harmful nucleic acids to those without a legitimate use for them. Governments, industry associations, and biosecurity organizations have offered guidance on synthesis screening for a decade, and are now considering how to translate industry best practices into regulatory frameworks. Methods: A review of existing guidance documents, policy proposals, and other published literature was performed. Results: We distinguish five categories of practical questions for policymakers: challenges associated with customer screening, sequence screening, the interaction between domestic and global regulations, commercial implications of screening, and finally, challenges associated with benchtop nucleic acid synthesis devices. There are a number of recommendations in public literature that target the implementation of robust customer and sequence screening, several of which have been incorporated into the recent United States White House Executive Order on artificial intelligence. There appears to be fewer solutions proposed to address challenges associated with the global screening landscape, or the commercial implications of screening requirements, and limited discussion on securing the benchtop synthesis landscape. Discussion and Conclusion: This paper aims at providing a comprehensive resource for policymakers, outlining a set of questions governments, and other stakeholders, must answer when implementing screening requirements to secure nucleic acid synthesis.

Five Things Not to Do When Discovering a Biosecurity Vulnerability.

Introduction: Tools to screen orders submitted to companies synthesizing nucleic acids or machines that can synthesize them are vital to help ensure the building blocks for pathogens, toxins, or other biotechnology that could cause harm are kept in the right hands. Methods: The author has argued that it would be worrying if someone discovering a vulnerability in a nucleic acid synthesis tool was to (1) publicly release it without a "patch," (2) set an impossible timeframe to patch it before public release, (3) refuse to report it without a reward, (4) test it on a tool without the developer's/operator's consent, or (5) create a real biological hazard while exploring hypothetical biosecurity vulnerabilities. Conclusion: It will be a much harder challenge to develop a parallel set of behaviors desirable in such circumstances. This is a process that should start now. There will soon be a need for a safe, balanced, and reliable reporting infrastructure.

Progress and Prospects for a Nucleic Acid Screening Test Set.

Objective: DNA synthesis companies screen orders to detect controlled sequences with misuse risks. Assessing screening accuracy is challenging owing to the breadth of biological risks and ambiguities in risk definitions. Here, we detail an International Gene Synthesis Consortium working group's rationale and process to develop a prototype DNA synthesis screening test dataset, aiming to establish a baseline of screening system accuracy to compare with various screening approaches. Methodology: Construction of the prototype test dataset involved four tool developers screening nucleic acid sequences from three taxonomic clusters of controlled organisms (Orbivirus, Francisella tularensis, and Coccidioides). Results were mapped onto predefined, comparable categories, checking for consensus or conflicts. Conflicts were grouped based on gene annotation and resolved through discussion. Results: The process highlighted several long-standing challenges in DNA synthesis screening, including the qualitative differences in approaches taken by screening tools. Our findings highlight the lack of clarity in assessing pathogen sequences with respect to regulatory control language, compounded by scientific uncertainty. We illustrate the current degree of consensus and existing challenges using classification statistics and specific examples. Conclusions and Next Steps: This prototype underscores the necessity of expert-regulator coordination in assessing gene-associated risks, offering a template for creating test sets across all taxonomic groups on international control lists. Expanding the working group would enrich dataset comprehensiveness, enabling a transition from species-focused to function-focused regulatory controls. This sets the foundation for quality control, certification, and improved risk assessment in DNA synthesis screening.

A Sensitivity Study for Interpreting Nucleic Acid Sequence Screening Regulatory and Guidance Documentation: Toward a Foundational Synthetic Nucleic Acid Sequence Screening Framework.

Objectives: The primary objectives of this study were to develop an objective nucleic acid sequence screening framework and to leverage the framework for an empirical sensitivity study that measures the impact of ambiguities in regulatory and guidance documentation regarding the control of synthetic nucleic acids and screening of nucleic acid orders. Methods: Foundational risk levels were constructed using the bioinformatic sequencing screening tool UltraSEQ. The risk levels range from high (corresponding to regulated sequences) to low (corresponding to nonregulated sequences of concern) to no-risk. A representative sequence data set (141,651 sequences) was constructed from publicly available synthetically derived sequences, and the percentage sequences in each risk level was determined, followed by the impact of changing key UltraSEQ parameters. Results: The results of this study show that no-risk sequences represent 90-92% of sequences, and nonregulated sequences of concern represented 7-9% of the sequences regardless of the parameters. The parameter with the biggest impact on the number of sequences flagged was the minimum hit homology level, followed by minimum sequence region length, and finally uniqueness of the hit to a select agent sequence. Conclusion: The results of this empirical study provide a greater understanding for gene synthesis providers, biosafety and biosecurity practitioners, and the scientific community regarding the impact of various interpretations of regulatory and guidance documentation. The risk level framework provides a foundation to build upon for nucleic acid sequence screening as the threat landscape evolves. However, additional development is needed to build tools that connect predictions across sequences and orders to provide contextual risk-based predictions.

Substitution Attacks: A Catalyst to Reframe the DNA Manufacturing Cyberbiosecurity Landscape in the Age of Benchtop Synthesizers.

Background: The advent of easy-to-use benchtop DNA synthesizers has ushered in a transformative era in biotechnology, extending the capabilities of DNA synthesis to nonspecialists. However, this revolution in access to this technology exposes several vulnerabilities, notably in the form of substitution attacks. These attacks exploit the intricate interplay between the digital domain of DNA sequences and the physical reality of synthesis instruments, posing substantial threats to biosecurity. Content: This article delves deeply into the dynamic and multifaceted landscape of cyberbiosecurity, specifically emphasizing a novel attack vector that evades traditional screening algorithms. To achieve this, the article explores algorithmic approaches designed to screen DNA sequences, shedding light on the vulnerabilities exposed by substitution attacks and recontextualizing the cyberbiosecurity actor landscape in the context of the entire DNA manufacturing process. Summary: The exploration of cyberbiosecurity brings existing vulnerabilities in DNA screening algorithms to light and sets the stage for future research and policy considerations. By emphasizing opportunities for a comprehensive, multipronged approach rooted in end-to-end practical DNA manufacturing, this study provides a foundation for advancing both knowledge and strategies in the realm of cyberbiosecurity. Recommendations: This article serves as a clarion call for increased vigilance and innovation in navigating the intricate landscape of cyberbiosecurity. Effectively understanding and mitigating substitution attacks is necessary to safeguard the integrity of synthesized genetic material, particularly in the context of the democratization of DNA synthesis technology.

Advancing Zebrafish Husbandry: Takeaways From the 2024 Husbandry Workshop and Husbandry Summit.

The 2024 Zebrafish Husbandry Workshop and Summit held during the World Aquaculture Society Meeting in San Antonio focused on key areas for improving zebrafish husbandry research. Discussions highlighted the need for comprehensive literature on husbandry, better communication and collaboration between researchers and facility staff, and the adoption of a standardized reference diet. Current literature lacks comprehensive data and often overlooks crucial factors such as housing density and space requirements for fish development. Collaborative efforts between researchers and facility managers are essential for acquiring accurate husbandry data and minimizing pathogen risks. Standardizing descriptive language and parameter lists in publications and enhancing communication between facilities can improve research quality. Action items proposed include better communication of incoming fish information, standardization of pathogen monitors, transparency in husbandry practices, and fostering a spirit of collaboration among organizations. The summit emphasized the importance of increased PI awareness about husbandry, testing existing standardized diets, forming consortia to oversee diet standardization, creating unified repositories and forums, and conducting evidence-based husbandry studies.

Supporting traceability and biosecurity in the sheep and goat industries in NSW: understanding barriers to implementing electronic identification.

Efficient traceability is paramount for Australia's biosecurity system and market access. Electronic identification (eID) offers higher traceability performance than that achieved with visual and mob-based identification used for the sheep and goats National Livestock Identification System (NLIS). The current study aims to gain an understanding of the barriers and motivations of using eID for NLIS sheep and goats in New South Wales (NSW) and to provide recommendations to support the transition to eID. A social research study using a mixed-methods approach was used through semi-structured interviews and a cross-sectional epidemiological and behavioural study among sheep and goat producers. The COM-B behaviour change model based on capabilities, opportunities and motivations was used as a framework for the study. A total of 269 participants informed this study: 25 interviews were conducted with government, industry and private stakeholders, and 184 and 58 sheep and goat producers participated in the cross-sectional study, respectively. The study identified poor understanding of the purpose and importance of NLIS among producers, with over two-thirds not supporting eID implementation. The main barriers identified to the eID implementation were practical, including costs, technology quality and increased workload. Attitudinal, behavioural and knowledge barriers, such as the perception of the current system providing efficient traceability and the perceived lack of benefits of eID were also identified. This study provides an in-depth analysis of practices and perceptions of stakeholders and producers on sheep and goat traceability and recommendations to address barriers identified, based on education and appropriate behavioural and technical support.

Cyber-biological convergence: a systematic review and future outlook.

The introduction of the capability to "program" a biological system is referred to as Engineered biology and can be compared to the introduction of the internet and the capability of programming a computer. Engineered biology is supported by a digital infrastructure that includes data, data storage, computer-dependent laboratory equipment, internet-connected communication networks, and supply chains. This connectivity is important. It can improve workflows and enhance productivity. At the same time and unlike computer programs, biological systems introduce unique threats as they can self-assemble, self-repair, and self-replicate. The aim of this paper is to systematically review the cyber implications of engineered biology. This includes cyber-bio opportunities and threats as engineered biology continues to integrate into cyberspace. We used a systematic search methodology to review the academic literature, and supplemented this with a review of opensource materials and "grey" literature that is not disseminated by academic publishers. A comprehensive search of articles published in or after 2017 until the 21st of October 2022 found 52 studies that focus on implications of engineered biology to cyberspace. The search was conducted using search engines that index over 60 databases-databases that specifically cover the information security, and biology literatures, as well as the wider set of academic disciplines. Across these 52 articles, we identified a total of 7 cyber opportunities including automated bio-foundries and 4 cyber threats such as Artificial Intelligence misuse and biological dataset targeting. We highlight the 4 main types of cyberbiosecurity solutions identified in the literature and we suggest a total of 9 policy recommendations that can be utilized by various entities, including governments, to ensure that cyberbiosecurity remains frontline in a growing bioeconomy.

Susceptibilities and viral shedding of peridomestic wildlife infected with clade 2.3.4.4b highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (H5N1).

We tested the ability of six peridomestic wildlife species to replicate a highly pathogenic (HP) clade 2.3.4.4b AIV (H5N1) isolated in the U.S. during 2022. All tested species replicated and shed virus, at least to some degree. Of the six species evaluated (house sparrows (Passer domesticus), European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris), feral pigeons (Columba livia), striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis), Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana), and cottontails (Sylvilagus sp.)), striped skunks and Virginia opossums shed the highest viral titers of 106.3 PFU/mL and 105.0 PFU/mL, respectively. Overall, the results of this study indicate that certain peridomestic species could pose a biosecurity threat to poultry operations in some situations. In addition, this study and field reports indicate that the HP AIVs circulating in the U.S. during 2022-2024 may have an extremely broad range of species that can be impacted by and/or replicate and shed these viruses.

Environmental bacterial load during surgical and ultrasound procedures in a Swedish small animal hospital.

BACKGROUND: Environmental bacteria in animal healthcare facilities may constitute a risk for healthcare-associated infections (HAI). Knowledge of the bacterial microflora composition and factors influencing the environmental bacterial load can support tailored interventions to lower the risk for HAI. The aims of this study were to: (1) quantify and identify environmental bacteria in one operating room (OR) and one ultrasound room (UR) in a small animal hospital, (2) compare the bacterial load to threshold values suggested for use in human healthcare facilities, (3) characterise the genetic relationship between selected bacterial species to assess clonal dissemination, and (4) investigate factors associated with bacterial load during surgery. Settle plates were used for passive air sampling and dip slides for surface sampling. Bacteria were identified by Matrix Assisted Laser Desorption-Time Of Flight. Antimicrobial susceptibility was determined by broth microdilution. Single nucleotide polymorphism-analysis was performed to identify genetically related isolates. Linear regression was performed to analyse associations between observed explanatory factors and bacterial load. RESULTS: The bacterial load on settle plates and dip slides were low both in the OR and the UR, most of the samples were below threshold values suggested for use in human healthcare facilities. All settle plates sampled during surgery were below the threshold values suggested for use in human clean surgical procedures. Staphylococcus spp. and Micrococcus spp. were the dominating species. There was no indication of clonal relationship among the sequenced isolates. Bacteria carrying genes conveying resistance to disinfectants were revealed. Air change and compliance with hygiene routines were sufficient in the OR. No other factors possibly associated with the bacterial load were identified. CONCLUSIONS: This study presents a generally low bacterial load in the studied OR and UR, indicating a low risk of transmission of infectious agents from the clinical environment. The results show that it is possible to achieve bacterial loads below threshold values suggested for use in human healthcare facilities in ORs in small animal hospitals and thus posing a reduced risk of HAI. Bacteria carrying genes conveying resistance to disinfectants indicates that resistant bacteria can persist in the clinical environment, with increased risk for HAI.

A Review of Swine Breeding Herd Biosecurity in the United States to Prevent Virus Entry Using Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus as a Model Pathogen.

The prevention of disease introduction into swine herds requires the practice of science-based protocols of biosecurity that have been validated to reduce the risk of the entry of targeted pathogens. The fundamental pillars of biosecurity include bio-exclusion, biocontainment, and bio-management. Biosecurity protocols must be science-based, a way of life, continuously validated, cost-effective, and benchmarked over time. This paper will review these concepts, the direct and indirect routes of transmission of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), and the interventions that have been designed and validated to prevent infection of the breeding herd. It will close with a review of Next Generation Biosecurity, describing how a science-based approach is being used to prevent PRRSV infection in breeding herds from a large commercial pork production system in the US.

Pandemic Incident Management for Vaccine Safety Challenges: Victoria's Alert Advisory Group Experience.

Safe vaccines are critical for biosecurity protection, yet adverse events-rightly or wrongly attributed to immunization-potentially cause rapid loss of confidence, reduced vaccine uptake, and resurgence of preventable disease. Effective vaccine safety incident management is essential to provide assessment and lead appropriate actions to ensure vaccination programs are safe and mitigate unwarranted crisis escalation that could damage vaccine programs and the effective control of vaccine preventable disease outbreaks or pandemics. Incident management systems (IMS) are used globally to direct emergency management response, particularly for natural disasters of fire, flood, and storm. Public health is equally an emergency response and can therefore benefit from these command control constructs. While examples of IMS for outbreak response and mass immunization logistics exist, there is little to no information on their use in vaccine safety. We describe Australia's vaccine safety Alert Advisory Group establishment in Victoria during the COVID-19 pandemic and onward embedding into routine practice, anticipant of new vaccines, and the next biosecurity threat.

Microbial laden mobile phones from international conference attendees pose potential risks to public health and biosecurity.

INTRODUCTION: Mobile phones, contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms, have the potential to act as "trojan horses". The microbial signatures present on their surfaces most probably vary across different geographical regions. As a result, mobile phones belonging to international conference attendees may serve as a model for global microbial dissemination, posing potential risks to public health and biosecurity. AIM: This study aimed to profile the microbes present on mobile phones belonging to delegates attending an international scientific conference through use of metagenomic shotgun DNA sequencing. METHODS: Twenty mobile phones, representing ten different geographical zones from around the world, were swabbed and pooled together into ten geographical-specific samples for high definition next-generation DNA sequencing. WONCA council members were invited to participate and provided verbal consent. Following DNA extraction, next generation sequencing, to a depth of approximately 10Gbp per sample, was undertaken on a v1.5 Illumina NovaSeq6000 system. Bioinformatic analysis was performed via the CosmosID platform. RESULTS: A total of 2204 microbial hits were accumulated across 20 mobile phones inclusive of 882 bacteria, 1229 viruses, 88 fungi and 5 protozoa. Of particular concern was the identification of 65 distinct antibiotic resistance genes and 86 virulence genes. Plant, animal and human pathogens, including ESKAPE and HACEK bacteria were found on mobile phones. DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION: Mobile phones of international attendees are contaminated with many & varied microorganisms. Further research is required to characterize the risks these devices pose for biosecurity and public health. Development of new policies which appropriately address and prevent such risks maybe warranted.