Perceptions of Afghan and Ukrainian refugees in Europe.

The Russian invasion of Ukraine led to a major humanitarian crisis resulting in many Ukrainians seeking refugee status in European countries. Unlike the positive attitudes towards Ukrainian refugees, Afghan refugees who were also required to leave their country following the Taliban's takeover of Afghanistan, received a negative reaction from the same European countries. Examining similar crises, a year apart, where people fled perilous situations in their countries, reveals contrasting reactions that emphasize the need to understand factors driving diverse public attitudes. Integrated Threat Theory (ITT), which posits that perceived threats can lead to prejudice and negative attitudes, may elucidate mechanisms behind opposing reactions towards Ukrainian and Afghan refugees. This study explores whether symbolic threats, intergroup anxiety, fear of terrorism, and political orientation are differentially related to attitudes towards Afghan and Ukrainian refugees in 250 European participants. Results demonstrate that participants hold more positive attitudes towards Ukrainian refugees compared to Afghan refugees. All the aforementioned factors predicted attitudes towards Afghan refugees, but only symbolic threats predicted attitudes towards Ukrainian refugees. Ethnicity and religiosity explain the relationship between symbolic threats and attitudes towards Afghan refugees. Western European participants show a stronger link between terrorism fear and negative views on Afghan refugees than Eastern Europeans, possibly due to higher terrorism rates in the West. Thus, attitudes towards refugees are intricate, but the study emphasizes the role of ITT, terrorism fear, politics, ethnicity, religiosity, and region. The findings could refine policies, stressing the need to address these factors for fostering inclusive, empathetic European societies.

Does terminology matter when measuring stigmatizing attitudes about weight? Validation of a brief, modified attitudes toward obese persons scale.

Objective: Commonly used terms like "obese person" have been identified as stigmatizing by those with lived experience. Thus, this study sought to revise a commonly used measure of weight stigmatizing attitudes, the Attitudes Toward Obese Persons (ATOP) scale. Methods: The original terminology in the 20-item ATOP (e.g., "obese") was compared to a modified version using neutral terms (e.g., "higher weight"). Participants (N = 832) were randomized to either receive the original or modified ATOP. Results: There was a statistically significant difference, with a small effect size (d = -0.22), between the scores of participants who received the original ATOP (M = 69.25) and the modified ATOP (M = 72.85), t(414) = -2.27, p = 0.024. Through principal component analysis, the modified ATOP was best used as a brief, 8-item unidimensional measure. In a second sample, confirmatory factor analysis verified the fit of the brief, 8-item factor structure. Conclusions: Findings suggest that a modified, brief version of the ATOP (ATOP-Heigher Weight; ATOP-HW) with neutral language is suitable for assessing negative attitudes about higher-weight people. The ATOP-HW may slightly underestimate weight stigma compared to the original ATOP, or the language in the ATOP may magnify negative attitudes. Further examination of the terminology used in weight stigma measures is needed to determine how to best assess weight stigma without reinforcing stigmatizing attitudes. The present study's findings suggest that the use of neutral terms in measures of anti-fat bias is a promising solution that warrants further investigation.

A Systematic Review of the Effect of Stigmatization on Psychiatric Illness Outcomes.

A significant proportion of individuals with psychiatric disorders face dual challenges such as managing the symptoms and disabilities of their conditions and enduring stigma arising from misconceptions about mental illness. This stigma denies them quality-of-life opportunities, such as access to satisfactory healthcare services, better employment, safer housing, and social affiliations. This systematic review aims to evaluate the effect of stigmatization on psychiatric illness outcomes, particularly its influence on treatment adherence, treatment-seeking behavior, and care outcomes. We conducted a systematic review of 39 studies published between 2010 and 2024, focusing on the effects of stigmatization on psychiatric illness outcomes. The review utilized robust methodology following Cochrane guidance and Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines, including studies from 2010 to 2024 obtained from databases such as PubMed, Embase, Google Scholar, Web of Science, and SCOPUS. The quality of the included studies was assessed using the Appraisal Tool for Cross-Sectional Studies, with most studies rated as moderate to high quality. The findings indicate that stigma in psychiatric illness is closely associated with several factors, including illness duration (mean effect size = 0.42, p < 0.05), frequency of clinic visits (mean reduction = 2.3 visits/year), and diagnosis of psychotic disorders (OR = 1.78, 95% CI: 1.20-2.65). Stigma manifests through misinformation, prejudice, and discrimination, leading to significant barriers to accessing and adhering to psychiatric treatment, thereby worsening health outcomes. It leads to delays in accessing healthcare, poor adherence to medication and follow-up, and negative psychiatric health outcomes, including disempowerment, reduced self-efficacy, increased psychiatric symptoms, and decreased quality of life. Also, stigma extends to caregivers and healthcare professionals, complicating care delivery. This review highlights the need for effective interventions and strategies to address stigma, emphasizing the importance of educational interventions to mitigate the adverse effects of public stigma. Understanding the multifaceted nature of stigma is crucial for developing targeted approaches to improve psychiatric care outcomes and ensure better mental health services for individuals with mental illnesses.

Racial and ethnic disparities in reproductive medicine in the United States: A narrative review of contemporary high-quality evidence.

There has been increasing debate around how or if race and ethnicity should be used in medical research-including the conceptualization of race as a biological entity, a social construct, or a proxy for racism. The objectives of this narrative review are to identify and synthesize reported racial and ethnic inequalities in obstetrics and gynecology (ob/gyn) and develop informed recommendations for racial and ethnic inequity research in ob/gyn. A reproducible search of the eight highest impact ob/gyn journals was conducted. Articles published between January 1, 2010, and June 30, 2023 containing keywords related to racial and ethnic disparities, bias, prejudice, inequalities, and inequities were included (n=318). Data were abstracted and summarized into four themes: 1) access to care, 2) adherence to national guidelines, 3) clinical outcomes, and 4) clinical trial diversity. Research related to each theme was organized topically under the headings i) obstetrics, ii) reproductive medicine, iii) gynecologic cancer, and iv) other. Additionally, interactive tables were developed. These include data on study timeline, population, location, and results for every article. The tables enable readers to filter by journal, publication year, race and ethnicity, and topic. Numerous studies identified adverse reproductive outcomes among racial and ethnic minorities as compared to white patients, that persist despite adjusting for differential access to care, socioeconomic or lifestyle factors, and clinical characteristics. These include higher maternal morbidity and mortality among Black and Hispanic/Latinx patients; reduced success during fertility treatments for Black, Hispanic/Latinx, and Asian patients; and lower survival rates and lower likelihood of receiving guideline concordant care for gynecological cancers for non-white patients. We conclude that many racial and ethnic inequities in ob/gyn cannot be fully attributed to patient characteristics or access to care. Research focused on explaining these disparities based on biological differences incorrectly reinforces the notion of race as a biological trait. More research that deconstructs race and assesses efficacy of interventions to reduce these disparities is needed.

Stigma of Binge-Eating Disorder in Hong Kong Chinese Adults: Effects of Weight Status, Diagnostic Labeling, and Etiological Explanations.

OBJECTIVE: Binge-eating disorder (BED) is a strongly stigmatized condition and is often complicated by weight stigma. Research on the intersection between BED and weight stigma is scarce especially in Chinese populations. The present study examined BED stigma in Chinese, whether BED stigma was independent from weight stigma, and whether diagnostic labeling and etiological explanations influenced the degree of BED stigma. METHOD: Using a between-subject experimental vignette study, 642 participants (mean age = 29.74 years, SD = 11.34) were randomly assigned to read one of the 18 vignettes, describing a character with information on BED symptoms, weight status, diagnostic labeling, and etiological explanations, followed by measures of stigma and help-seeking intentions. RESULTS: The character with BED symptoms was ascribed more negative personality characteristics, elicited more negative affective reactions, and triggered greater desired social distance compared to the character without BED symptoms. No evidence for weight stigma was found nor for its interaction with BED stigma. The Cantonese diagnostic label of BED, kwong sik zing, was associated with lower levels of volitional stigma and greater help-seeking intentions than the diagnostic label of eating disorders, jam sik sat tiu, and the absence of labeling. The effect of etiological explanations was only significant in the univariate test, indicating that providing either a psychosocial or a biogenetic etiological explanation lessened the negative evaluations of personality characteristics. DISCUSSION: The present study provided first evidence for BED stigma in Chinese. BED stigma appeared to be attributable to the presence of disordered eating behavior rather than the BED diagnosis.

Does educational attainment matter for attitudes toward immigrants in Chile? Assessing the causality and generalizability of higher education's so-called "liberalizing effect" on economic and cultural threat.

Despite a large literature consistently showing a relationship between higher levels of education and lower levels of ethnic prejudice, some points of contention remain. First, it remains unclear whether education has a causal effect on attitudes, mainly due to a lack of longitudinal studies. Second, due to the majority of studies on prejudice being conducted in Europe and North America, we do not know to what extent the inverse relationship between education and prejudice is generalizable beyond the "global North." To answer these questions, I study attitudes toward immigrants in Chile in the years 2016-2022, using six waves of the Chilean Longitudinal Social Survey. Chile provides new variations in economic and cultural factors, with its stable albeit highly unequal economy, and increased immigration from culturally similar countries which shed light on possible scope conditions of the so-called liberalizing effect of education. I analyze whether attaining more education has an effect on reducing levels of perceived economic and cultural threat. The findings show that increases in education are associated with both lower levels of perceived economic and cultural threat, with education having a stronger effect on the latter.

Development and validation of a questionnaire to evaluate attitudes and beliefs of discrimination by nursing staff.

OBJECTIVE: Aim: The purpose of this study is to report on the development and initial psychometric testing of a questionnaire to investigate nurses' discrimination attitudes and beliefs towards people of dif f erent ethnic origins. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Materials and Methods: The initial stage involved the selection of the questions of the tool after a comprehensive evaluation of the relevant international literature and the tools used in previous related studies. The reliability (forward-backward translation) of the questions was assessed, along with the content, face, and structure. To conduct the study, which was carried out from 07/2021 to 01/2022 a sample consisting of 30 and 2,034 nurses and their assistants was used for the pilot and the fi nal research, respectively. RESULTS: Results: Given that the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) threshold value of 0.89 was achieved, the sample was considered sufficient and appropriate for factor analysis. A statistically signif i cant result (p<0.001) from Bartlett's test indicated a substantial connection between the questions and conf i rmed that the data were suitable for factor analysis. Twenty statements altogether, with seven possible answers ranging from "totally disagree" to "completely agree," were included in the questionnaire. For the questions, three distinct factors - communication, difficulties, and discrimination - were shown to account for 47.1% of the variability. Reliability analyzes showed satisfactory Cronbach alpha coefficient scores for all factors, ranging from 0.78 to 0.82. CONCLUSION: Conclusions: The current study demonstrates that the questionnaire we developed is a legitimate and trustworthy instrument for evaluating professional nurses' discriminatory attitudes and beliefs toward individuals from various ethnic backgrounds. The questionnaire can be used to help design interventions to end discrimination, guarantee equitable access to healthcare services, and provide high-quality care for individuals from diverse backgrounds. It can also be used to identify the factors that inf l uence nurses' attitudes and perceptions toward these patient populations.

Prejudice and Fear as Influences in Relation to a Successful Organ Donation - Experiences of Immigrants Living in Sweden.

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to determine whether fear and prejudice in relation to organ donation and the transplantation of organs may influence the decision to become an organ donor. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Data were collected through four group interviews using open-ended questions and qualitative content analysis. Forty participants, 16 males and 24 females from seven countries, participated in the focus group interviews. RESULTS: The analysis resulted in three main categories, and nine subcategories. Fears and prejudice caused by tradition and customs, approval of organ donation by family members, perception of the body as a gift from parents, the influence of religious leaders, knowledge about the religious understanding of organ donation, influence of social ambience on respondents, knowledge of the donation process in the healthcare system, including knowing about life after eventual organ donation, were some of predictors in the decision to agree to organ donation. CONCLUSION: More education on the factors that influence organ donation, more information in schools, health institutions and through the media, as well as more research with the aim of "dispelling" fears and prejudice about organ donation would significantly improve the current situation and result in a larger number of potential organ donors.

Diabetes misconceptions, seriousness, motivation, self-efficacy and stigma: A cross-sectional comparison of eight Australian diabetes communication campaign videos.

AIM: This study examines potential intended (attitudes, motivation and self-efficacy) and unintended (stigmatisation of diabetes) consequences of past Australian National Diabetes Week campaign videos. Further, outcomes are compared by the extent to which participants perceived their allocated video as stigmatising diabetes. METHODS: In this cross-sectional, ten-arm study, participants (adults with or without diabetes; 1:2 ratio) were randomly allocated to view one of eight archival diabetes campaign videos (intervention), or either an active or passive control group. Post-exposure, study-specific scales measured diabetes Misconceptions and Seriousness, General and Diabetes Risk-Reduction Motivation and Self-efficacy, and perceptions of video Stigmatisation of diabetes. Scores were compared by condition (intervention vs. control) and by campaign Stigma (highest vs. lowest tertile score), separately by cohort (with or without diabetes). RESULTS: The sample included n = 1023 without diabetes; and n = 510 with diabetes (79% type 2 diabetes). No significant differences in outcomes were observed between conditions (intervention vs. control), with one exception: a modest effect on General Self-efficacy among those without diabetes only. Those perceiving high campaign Stigma (15%), relative to low Stigma (60%), reported significantly greater diabetes Misconceptions, lower perceived Seriousness and (among those without diabetes only) lower General Motivation but higher Diabetes Risk Reduction Motivation. CONCLUSION: Though limited to a single-exposure, we found little meaningful positive influence of past diabetes campaign videos on diabetes attitudes, behavioural intentions or self-efficacy. Further, campaign videos were perceived as stigmatising by a minority-a potential harmful impact. This novel study has implications for the design, implementation and evaluation of future diabetes campaigns.

Improving cervical screening rates among sexual minorities: Insights from Aotearoa New Zealand.

ISSUE ADDRESSED: Sexual minority women (SMW) experience inequities in health outcomes. The extant literature consistently suggests that SMW are much less likely than their heterosexual peers to engage in cervical screening. Using participant's voices, the focus of this study was to explore the ways in which cervical screening rates for SMW might be improved. METHODS: An online survey was completed by SMW (N = 177) aged 25-69 based in Aotearoa New Zealand and representing a range of sexual identities, ethnicities, and geographical regions. The analysis presented here was derived from open-ended qualitative responses to a single survey item: What do you think could be done to encourage more SMW (lesbians, wahine takatapui, bisexual women, etc.) to engage in smear testing? RESULTS: Analysis of the data generated three main themes around how public health services could encourage more SMW to engage in cervical screening: Inclusive health services, clarity of information, and targeted health promotion. CONCLUSION: The analysis showed that the inherent heteronormativity among health care professionals and the lack of clear and consistent information specific to SMW may be key factors contributing to lower rates of engagement in screening. SO WHAT?: Given that not engaging in screening is the main risk factor for cervical cancer, it is imperative that active consideration is given to these issues with a view to increasing participation rates among SMW.

Access to justice in the light of everyday problems and prejudice: A pilot study on the experiences of people with epilepsy in Finland.

PURPOSE: The aim of this socio-legal pilot study is to gain insight into the access to justice for people with epilepsy in Finland by identifying the everyday problems experienced by them. Stigma, prejudice and their impact on the lives of people with epilepsy has been widely documented in the literature. Thus, we also wanted to explore whether there is a link between reported everyday problems and perceived prejudice. METHODS: In the first phase of the study, court cases were used to describe the everyday problems of people with epilepsy in Finland. In the second phase, descriptive statistical methods were used to analyse the survey data collected from adults with epilepsy in Finland (n = 237). RESULTS: Based on only a few existing court cases, the problems faced by people with epilepsy seem to be similar to those faced by other groups of people with disabilities. The most common problems reported by our survey respondents were related to healthcare services (73 %) and work (54 %), followed by family (25 %), mistreatment (25 %), housing (24 %) and goods and services (19 %). Both having refractory epilepsy and perceived prejudice seem to be linked with experiencing everyday problems. CONCLUSION: The results of this pilot study on the everyday problems experienced by people with epilepsy suggest that there are various gaps in their access to justice, even in a developed EU country like Finland.

"Ask for my ideas first": Experiences of antenatal care and shared decision-making for women with high body mass index.

BACKGROUND: Shared decision-making supports women's choices in pregnancy. Women with high body mass index (≥35 kg/m2) experience a high rate of interventions in pregnancy, labour, and birth, providing an opportunity for clinicians to implement shared decision-making in practice. However, weight stigma may limit women's opportunities for shared decision-making. AIM: To understand how pregnant women with high body mass index perceive their involvement in antenatal decision-making, including whether weight stigma influences their experience. METHODS: Women with high body mass index were recruited via purposive sampling from two sites in Melbourne, Australia. Semi-structured interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed, and analysed using reflexive thematic analysis. FINDINGS: Ten pregnant women consented to participate. Three themes and six sub-themes were identified. These were: 1) Trusting the system, 2) Who takes the lead?, and 3) Defying disease. DISCUSSION: Shared decision-making is limited for women with high body mass index in antenatal care, and weight stigma is experienced by women. Clinical practice recommendations relating to excess weight have the potential to further limit women's involvement in decision-making if adequate support is not provided to ensure women's understanding and involvement in care. CONCLUSION: Women's involvement in care is a central component of shared decision-making and it is currently limited for women with high body mass index. Transparency regarding the rationale for recommendations is required, and further work must be done to address the influence and impact of weight stigma on the care of women with high body mass index.

How Digital Solutions Might Provide a World of New Opportunities for Holistic and Empathic Support of Patients with Hidradenitis Suppurativa.

Hidradenitis suppurativa (HS) is a complex chronic relapsing inflammatory condition anchored in the hair follicle wherein painful abscesses, nodules, and tunnels form under the skin with the potential for intermittent pus drainage and tissue scarring. Current estimates of incidence are 1-4% globally with the disease three times more prevalent in women and higher rates among Black populations. Patients with HS are also more likely to suffer from depression, anxiety, and loneliness underscoring the need for carefully approached strategies on disease awareness and interventions. Delays in formal diagnosis, which have been estimated at 7-10 years on average, impede timely provision of optimal care. Despite best intent, when patients present at a physician's office, stigmas relating to physical appearance can be exacerbated by negative interactions experienced by patients. In addition to long wait times and the dearth of available HS expert dermatology professionals, patients perceive heightened physician focus on two of the HS flare risk factors (smoking and body mass index [BMI]) as negatively impacting their care. Given the need for continual, personal, and sensitive patient support, herein we advocate for re-examination of approach to care and the leveraging of highly personalized digital support solutions. New medications which can directly or indirectly control elements of the disease and its comorbidities are also entering the marketplace. Collectively, we posit that these new developments provide opportunity for a holistic approach for patients with HS, leading to long-term engagement and improved outcomes.

Examining identity disclosure: Racial and ethnic identity amongst Multiracial/ethnic adults in the United States.

OBJECTIVES: Providing personal demographic information is routine practice in the United States, and yet, little is known about the impacts of this process. This study aims to examine the experiences and perspectives of Multiracial/ethnic adults in the United States when disclosing racial/ethnic identity. METHODS: Seventeen semistructured interviews were conducted with adults identifying as Multiracial/ethnic. The Multiracial/ethnic identities of participants included Black or African American and White; Black or African American, American Indian or Alaska Native (AI/AN) and Hispanic or Latino; Black or African American and Hispanic or Latino; Black or African American and AI/AN; AI/AN and White and Asian, Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander and White. Multiple participants reported identifying with multiple ethnic groups for any single broad category. Three identified as sexual minorities. Nine were Millennials; six were Gen X; one was Gen Z; one was Baby Boomer. Qualitative data were analyzed using staged hybrid inductive-deductive thematic analysis. RESULTS: Disclosure of racial and ethnic identities presents a unique stressor for Multiracial/ethnic populations due to methods used to obtain data, perceived mismatch of identity and phenotype and exposure to prejudice. Social norms, constructs and movements impact the categories that a Multiracial/ethnic person indicates to external parties. CONCLUSIONS: The stress and negative feelings that Multiracial/ethnic adults face when identifying their race/ethnicity underscore the broader implications of standard demographic questions on feelings of inclusivity and visibility within a population. PATIENT OR PUBLIC CONTRIBUTION: Gathering data on individuals' racial and ethnic backgrounds is a standard practice, and yet, it can pose challenges for those who identify with multiple groups or do not see their identities reflected in the options provided. Such individuals may feel excluded or experience unfair treatment when disclosing their identity, leading to significant stress. As the frequency of this data collection increases, it is essential that the questions are posed empathetically and equitably, with a strong commitment to enhancing inclusivity throughout the process.

Stigma and fear of getting sick in the care of people living with HIV: an exploratory systematic review.

The aim of the present study was to explore the stigma and fear of getting sick in health professionals who treat people living with HIV. An exploratory systematic review was conducted. The search was limited to the presence of stigma and fear of getting sick on the part of healthcare workers who treat people living with HIV, documented by the health workers or patients themselves. No language restriction was made and systematic reviews, comments or communications were excluded. The sources of information were Scopus, PubMed/MEDLINE, Science Direct, and the CENTRAL Registry, from the last 5 years. The quality of the evidence was assessed with an adapted tool and the synthesis of the results was carried out using a narrative synthesis approach. Twenty-three articles were included, which related structural stigma, stigma by health professionals and fear of getting sick. Among the findings, data stood out such as that more than 50% of patients reported having experienced discrimination due to HIV and even accumulated stigma for other additional causes. Stigma enacted in healthcare settings was related to suboptimal adherence to treatment (OR 1.38; 95% CI: 1.03-1.84; p=0.028). Stigma is a structural barrier in the care of people living with HIV and generates a psychological, physical, and social health impact for these people. Some limitations of the present study are that, despite searching the major databases, important manuscripts may have been left out. Additionally, there are regions that are not represented in this review because no manuscripts from those areas were found.

Discrimination, Internalized Sexual Prejudice and the Post-Sex Experience Among Members of Sexual Minorities.

Postcoital dysphoria (PCD) refers to a counter-intuitive experience of sadness, tearfulness, irritability or dysphoria following an otherwise satisfactory and consensual sexual experience. Research to date has primarily focused on heteronormative samples. The current study explored the prevalence of PCD, and potential correlates of internalized sexual prejudice, perceived discrimination, and sex life satisfaction within a LGBTQIA+ population. One hundred and seventy-two adults identifying as LGBTQIA+ completed an online survey. Main outcome measures included the Post Sex Experience Scale (p-SES), Everyday Discrimination Scale (EDS), Internalized Homophobia Scale (IHS), Satisfaction with Sex Life Scale (SWSLS), and study specific questions. Prevalence of PCD was 42% of males attracted to other males and 81% of participants identifying as bisexual/sexual fluid. A significant and a moderate inverse correlation was found between sex life satisfaction and PCD (r = -.75) for individuals identifying as bisexual/fluid sexual orientation. Significant correlations were found between perceived discrimination and PCD (weak positive correlation, r = .28), and sex life satisfaction and PCD (moderate negative correlation, r = -.59) in men attracted to men. This research suggests being a member of a sexual minority is associated with sex-related dysphoria and dissatisfaction. Further research is needed to further elucidate PCD.

Americans harbor much less favorable explicit sentiments toward young adults than toward older adults.

Public and academic discourse on ageism focuses primarily on prejudices targeting older adults, implicitly assuming that this age group experiences the most age bias. We test this assumption in a large, preregistered study surveying Americans' explicit sentiments toward young, middle-aged, and older adults. Contrary to certain expectations about the scope and nature of ageism, responses from two crowdsourced online samples matched to the US adult population (N = 1,820) revealed that older adults garner the most favorable sentiments and young adults, the least favorable ones. This pattern held across a wide range of participant demographics and outcome variables, in both samples. Signaling derogation of young adults more than benign liking of older adults, participants high on SDO (i.e., a key antecedent of group prejudice) expressed even less favorable sentiments toward young adults-and more favorable ones toward older adults. In two follow-up, preregistered, forecasting surveys, lay participants (N = 500) were generally quite accurate at predicting these results; in contrast, social scientists (N = 241) underestimated how unfavorably respondents viewed young adults and how favorably they viewed older adults. In fact, the more expertise in ageism scientists had, the more biased their forecasts. In a rapidly aging world with exacerbated concerns over older adults' welfare, young adults also face increasing economic, social, political, and ecological hardship. Our findings highlight the need for policymakers and social scientists to broaden their understanding of age biases and develop theory and policies that ponder discriminations targeting all age groups.

Priors and prejudice: hierarchical predictive processing in intergroup perception.

Hierarchical predictive processing provides a framework outlining how prior expectations shape perception and cognition. Here, we highlight hierarchical predictive processing as a framework for explaining how social context and group-based social knowledge can directly shape intergroup perception. More specifically, we argue that hierarchical predictive processing confers a uniquely valuable toolset to explain extant findings and generate novel hypotheses for intergroup perception. We first provide an overview of hierarchical predictive processing, specifying its primary theoretical assumptions. We then review evidence showing how prior knowledge influences intergroup perception. Next, we outline how hierarchical predictive processing can account well for findings in the intergroup perception literature. We then underscore the theoretical strengths of hierarchical predictive processing compared to other frameworks in this space. We finish by outlining future directions and laying out hypotheses that test the implications of hierarchical predictive processing for intergroup perception and intergroup cognition more broadly. Taken together, hierarchical predictive processing provides explanatory value and capacity for novel hypothesis generation for intergroup perception.

Children's gender essentialism and prejudice: Testing causal links via an experimental manipulation.

Despite increases in visibility, gender-nonconforming young people continue to be at risk for bullying and discrimination. Prior work has established that gender essentialism in children correlates with prejudice against people who do not conform to gender norms, but to date no causal link has been established. The present study investigated this link more directly by testing whether children's gender essentialism and prejudice against gender nonconformity can be reduced by exposure to anti-essentialist messaging. Children ages 6-10 years of age (N = 102) in the experimental condition viewed a short video describing similarities between boys and girls and variation within each gender; children in the control condition (N = 102) viewed a corresponding video describing similarities between two types of climate and variation within each. Children then received measures of gender essentialism and prejudice against gender nonconformity. Finally, to ask whether manipulating children's gender essentialism extends to another domain, we included assessments of racial essentialism and prejudice. We found positive correlations between gender essentialism and prejudice against gender nonconformity; both also correlated negatively with participant age. However, we observed no differences between children in the experimental versus control conditions in overall essentialism or prejudice, indicating that our video was largely ineffective in manipulating essentialism. Accordingly, we were unable to provide evidence of a causal relationship between essentialism and prejudice. We did, however, see a difference between conditions on the discreteness measure, which is most closely linked to the wording in the video. This finding suggests that specific aspects of essentialism in young children may be modifiable. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Consistent with prior research, we found that greater gender essentialism was associated with greater prejudice against gender-nonconforming children; both decreased with age. We randomly assigned children to view either an anti-essentialist video manipulation or a control video to test if this relation was causal in nature. The anti-essentialist video did not reduce overall essentialism as compared to the control, so we did not find support for a causal link. We observed a reduction in the dimension of essentialism most closely linked to the anti-essentialist video language, suggesting the potential utility of anti-essentialist messaging.