Continuity and changes in grandchild care and the risk of depression for Chinese grandparents: new evidence from CHARLS.

Objectives: Although studies have researched the mental effects of intergenerational care, little is known about the impact of transformations in caregiving intensity on depression. This study explores grand-parents' depressive symptom outcomes in terms of changes over time in grandparental childcare, with considerations for subgroup differences. Method: Using data from the 2015-2018 China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study on grandparents aged 45 and older, we adopted generalized estimating equations to estimate the effects of seven category changes [(1) continued to provide high-intensity or (2) low-intensity care at both waves; (3) never provided care; (4) started caregiving; (5) ended caregiving; (6) provided less intensive care; and (7) provided more intensive care] over time in grandparental childcare on depressive symptoms among 17,701 grandparents with at least one grandchild, as well as how the impact varies by gender and urban/rural areas. Results: Grandparents who decreased the intensity of care, stopped childcare, or offered continuous low-intensity care were associated with a lower level of depression compared with those providing no childcare. In addition, the benefit of continuous caregiving on mental health was especially noticeable in urban grandmothers. Conclusion: Providing continuous low-intensity, decreased-intensity grandparenting and the cessation of caregiving were associated with a decreased level of depression for Chinese grandparents; however, there were complex interactions at play. Policies aimed at supporting grandparenting should consider caregiving intensity transitions relevant to gender and urban/rural residence.

Does It Matter Where You Live? Rural-Urban Context Among Women Entrepreneurs in Pakistan.

Entrepreneurship is considered as one of the strategies for economic and regional development. In particular, women entrepreneurs engaged in different geographic locations, where their characteristics and business factors are different in each location. This study examines home-based women entrepreneurs in Pakistan in relation to their place of residence, specifically rural or urban context. Very few studies have considered place of residence as a variable affecting women's businesses at the household level. This is critical since the business context can exert a major influence on available resources and constraints that affect business viability and sustainability. Data were collected from 504 women entrepreneurs using a survey questionnaire. Descriptive statistics, chi-square test, and binary logistics regression were used to achieve the objectives of the study. The findings revealed important and significant differences based on the rural versus urban context of women entrepreneurs including home ownership, household size, the number of adult family members in the household, family financial position, business record keeping, having a bank account, and type of business. While the binary logistic regression analysis reported adult family members, family financial position, business record keeping, bank account, and beautician business were the significant predictors of the women entrepreneurs' rural-urban model. The findings offer implications for policymakers, funders, bank/financial institutions, and non-governmental organizations for increasing women's entrepreneurship, empowerment, and income equality in developing countries.