Application of Glyceric Acid to Bio-related Functional Materials and Improvement of Microbial Production.

Glyceric acid (GA) is an oxidative product of glycerol, and its d-isomer is obtained as a phytochemical from tobacco leaves and fruits of some plants. However, the production and applications of GA have not yet been fully investigated. In this review, recent developments in the microbial production of GA and its application to bio-related materials are summarized. The sodium salt of diacylated GA showed superior surface tension-lowering activity and antitrypsin activity. GA and its glucosyl derivative had positive effects on the viability and collagen production of skin cells in vitro, respectively. Glucosyl derivatives of GA showed protective effects against heat-induced protein aggregation. In addition, the microbial production of GA using raw glycerol as the starting material was investigated. The effect of methanol, a major impurity in raw glycerol, on GA production was investigated, and mutant strains to tolerate methanol in the culture were constructed. Enantioselective production of GA using newly isolated microbial strains has also been developed.

Tripartite Regulation of the glpFKD Operon Involved in Glycerol Catabolism by GylR, Crp, and SigF in Mycobacterium smegmatis.

The glpD (MSMEG_6761) gene encoding glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase was shown to be crucial for M. smegmatis to utilize glycerol as the sole carbon source. The glpD gene likely forms the glpFKD operon together with glpF and glpK, encoding a glycerol facilitator and glycerol kinase, respectively. The gylR (MSMEG_6757) gene, whose product belongs to the IclR family of transcriptional regulators, was identified 182 bp upstream of glpF It was demonstrated that GylR serves as a transcriptional activator and is involved in the induction of glpFKD expression in the presence of glycerol. Three GylR-binding sites with the consensus sequence (GKTCGRC-N3-GYCGAMC) were identified in the upstream region of glpF by DNase I footprinting analysis. The presence of glycerol-3-phosphate was shown to decrease the binding affinity of GylR to the glpF upstream region with changes in the quaternary structure of GylR from tetramer to dimer. Besides GylR, cAMP receptor protein (Crp) and an alternative sigma factor, SigF, are also implicated in the regulation of glpFKD expression. Crp functions as a repressor, while SigF induces expression of glpFKD under energy-limiting conditions. In conclusion, we suggest here that the glpFKD operon is under the tripartite control of GylR, SigF, and Crp, which enables M. smegmatis to integrate the availability of glycerol, cellular energy state, and cellular levels of cAMP to exquisitely control expression of the glpFKD operon involved in glycerol metabolism.IMPORTANCE Using genetic approaches, we first revealed that glycerol is catabolized through the glycolytic pathway after conversion to dihydroxyacetone phosphate in two sequential reactions catalyzed by glycerol kinase (GlpK) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)-containing glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GlpD) in M. smegmatis Our study also revealed that in addition to the GylR transcriptional activator that mediates the induction of the glpFKD operon by glycerol, the operon is regulated by SigF and Crp, which reflect the cellular energy state and cAMP level, respectively.

Potential applications of stress solutes from extremophiles in protein folding diseases and healthcare.

Protein misfolding, aggregation and deposition in the brain, in the form of amyloid, are implicated in the etiology of several neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and prion diseases. Drugs available on the market reduce the symptoms, but they are not a cure. Therefore, it is urgent to identify promising targets and develop effective drugs. Preservation of protein native conformation and/or inhibition of protein aggregation seem pertinent targets for drug development. Several studies have shown that organic solutes, produced by extremophilic microorganisms in response to osmotic and/or heat stress, prevent denaturation and aggregation of model proteins. Among these stress solutes, mannosylglycerate, mannosylglyceramide, di-myo-inositol phosphate, diglycerol phosphate and ectoine are effective in preventing amyloid formation by Alzheimer's Aß peptide and/or α-synuclein in vitro. Moreover, mannosylglycerate is a potent inhibitor of Aß and α-synuclein aggregation in living cells, and mannosylglyceramide and ectoine inhibit aggregation and reduce prion peptide-induced toxicity in human cells. This review focuses on the efficacy of stress solutes from hyper/thermophiles and ectoines to prevent amyloid formation in vitro and in vivo and their potential application in drug development against protein misfolding diseases. Current and envisaged applications of these extremolytes in neurodegenerative diseases and healthcare will also be addressed.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of enantiomerically pure glyceric acid derivatives as LpxC inhibitors.

Inhibitors of the UDP-3-O-[(R)-3-hydroxymyristoyl]-N-acetylglucosamine deacetylase (LpxC) represent a promising class of novel antibiotics, selectively combating Gram-negative bacteria. In order to elucidate the impact of the hydroxymethyl groups of diol (S,S)-4 on the inhibitory activity against LpxC, glyceric acid ethers (R)-7a, (S)-7a, (R)-7b, and (S)-7b, lacking the hydroxymethyl group in benzylic position, were synthesized. The compounds were obtained in enantiomerically pure form by a chiral pool synthesis and a lipase-catalyzed enantioselective desymmetrization, respectively. The enantiomeric hydroxamic acids (R)-7b (Ki=230nM) and (S)-7b (Ki=390nM) show promising enzyme inhibition. However, their inhibitory activities do not substantially differ from each other leading to a low eudismic ratio. Generally, the synthesized glyceric acid derivatives 7 show antibacterial activities against two Escherichia coli strains exceeding the ones of their respective regioisomes 6.

Bending of protonema cells in a plastid glycolate/glycerate transporter knockout line of Physcomitrella patens.

Arabidopsis LrgB (synonym PLGG1) is a plastid glycolate/glycerate transporter associated with recycling of 2-phosphoglycolate generated via the oxygenase activity of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCO). We isolated two homologous genes (PpLrgB1 and B2) from the moss Physcomitrella patens. Phylogenetic tree analysis showed that PpLrgB1 was monophyletic with LrgB proteins of land plants, whereas PpLrgB2 was divergent from the green plant lineage. Experiments with PpLrgB-GFP fusion proteins suggested that both PpLrgB1 and B2 proteins were located in chloroplasts. We generated PpLrgB single (∆B1 and ∆B2) and double (∆B1/∆B2)-knockout lines using gene targeting of P. patens. The ∆B1 plants showed decreases in growth and photosynthetic activity, and their protonema cells were bent and accumulated glycolate. However, because ∆B2 and ∆B1/∆B2 plants showed no obvious phenotypic change relative to the wild-type or ∆B1 plants, respectively, the function of PpLrgB2 remains unclear. Arabidopsis LrgB could complement the ∆B1 phenotype, suggesting that the function of PpLrgB1 is the same as that of AtLrgB. When ∆B1 was grown under high-CO2 conditions, all novel phenotypes were suppressed. Moreover, protonema cells of wild-type plants exhibited a bending phenotype when cultured on media containing glycolate or glycerate, suggesting that accumulation of photorespiratory metabolites caused P. patens cells to bend.

Signalling-dependent adverse health effects of carbon nanoparticles are prevented by the compatible solute mannosylglycerate (firoin) in vitro and in vivo.

The inhalation of combustion-derived nanoparticles leads to adverse health effects in the airways. In this context the induction of membrane-coupled signalling is considered as causative for changes in tissue homeostasis and pro-inflammatory reactions. The identification of these molecular cell reactions allowed to seek for strategies which interfere with these adverse effects. In the current study, we investigated the structurally different compatible solutes mannosylglycerate (firoin) from thermophilic bacteria and ectoine from halophilic bacteria for their capability to reduce signalling pathways triggered by carbon nanoparticles in target cells in the lung. The pre-treatment of lung epithelial cells with both substances decreased the particle-specific activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases and also the endpoints proliferation and apoptosis. Firoin applied into the lungs of animals, like ectoine, led to a significant reduction of the neutrophilic lung inflammation induced by particle exposure. The pro-inflammatory effect of carbon nanoparticles on human neutrophil granulocytes ex vivo was significantly reduced by both substances via the reduction of the anti-apoptotic membrane-dependent signalling. The data of this study together with earlier studies demonstrate that two structurally non-related compatible solutes are able to prevent pathogenic reactions of the airways to carbon nanoparticles by interfering with signalling events. The findings highlight the preventive or therapeutic potential of compatible solutes for adverse health effects caused by particle exposure of the airways.

In vitro evaluation of glyceric acid and its glucosyl derivative, α-glucosylglyceric acid, as cell proliferation inducers and protective solutes.

We demonstrate that 0.78 mm glyceric acid activated the proliferation of human dermal fibroblasts by about 45%, whereas 34 mm α-glucosylglyceric acid (GGA) increased collagen synthesis by the fibroblasts by 1.4-fold compared to that in the absence of GGA. The two substances also exerted protective effects on both DNA scission by the hydroxyl radical and protein aggregation by heat in vitro.

Modulation of allosteric regulation by E38K and G101N mutations in the potato tuber ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase.

The higher plant ADP-glucose (ADPG) pyrophosphorylase (AGPase), composed of two small subunits and two large subunits (LSs), produces ADPG, the sole substrate for starch biosynthesis from α-D-glucose 1-phosphate and ATP. This enzyme controls a key step in starch synthesis as its catalytic activity is activated by 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA) and inhibited by orthophosphate (Pi). Previously, two mutations in the LS of potato AGPase (PLS), PLS-E38K and PLS-G101N, were found to increase sensitivity to 3-PGA activation and tolerance to Pi inhibition. In the present study, the double mutated enzyme (PLS-E38K/G101N) was evaluated. In a complementation assay of ADPG synthesis in an Escherichia coli mutant defective in the synthesis of ADPG, expression of PLS-E38K/G101N mediated higher glycogen production than wild-type potato AGPase (PLS-WT) and the single mutant enzymes, PLS-E38K and PLS-G101N, individually. Purified PLS-E38K/G101N showed higher sensitivity to 3-PGA activation and tolerance to Pi inhibition than PLS-E38K or PLS-G101N. Moreover, the enzyme activities of PLS-E38K, PLS-G101N, and PLS-E38K/G101N were more readily stimulated by other major phosphate-ester metabolites, such as fructose 6-phosphate, fructose 2,6-bisphosphate, and ribose 5-phosphate, than was that of PLS-WT. Hence, although the specific enzyme activities of the LS mutants toward 3-PGA were impaired to some extent by the mutations, our results suggest that their enhanced allosteric regulatory properties and the broadened effector selectivity gained by the same mutations not only offset the lowered enzyme catalytic turnover rates but also increase the net performance of potato AGPase in vivo in view of increased glycogen production in bacterial cells.

3-Phosphoglycerate is an allosteric activator of pyruvate kinase from the hyperthermophilic archaeon Pyrobaculum aerophilum.

Pyruvate kinase (PK) is a highly regulated enzyme that catalyzes the final step of glycolysis. PK from the hyperthermophilic archaeon Pyrobaculum aerophilum (PaPK) is distinguished from most PK enzymes of eukarya and bacteria by not responding to any known allosteric effectors and apparently exhibiting only cooperative regulation. We determined the crystal structure of PaPK to 2.2 Å resolution and, in a manner consistent with the lack of a response to conventional effectors, observed that the canonical allosteric site is occluded by a tyrosine. Unexpectedly, though, a bound sulfate was observed at a position equivalent to the 6'-phosphate of sugar effectors, suggesting an allosteric site, but for an unknown effector and sharing only the phosphate position. A search of three-carbon intermediates of glycolysis revealed 3-phosphoglycerate (3PG) as a potent allosteric activator of PaPK. The response was abolished by mutation of residues that contact the sulfate and of an arginine proposed to interact with the 3PG carboxylate group. Regulation of PK by 3PG is consistent with the ancestral glycolysis of hyperthermophilic archaea in which this intermediate is produced by an irreversible enzyme, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate ferredoxin oxidoreductase. Coordinated regulation within the lower half of glycolysis contrasts sharply with conventional glycolysis in which 3PG is produced reversibly and PK is regulated by fructose 1,6-bisphosphate, the product of phosphofructokinase, an irreversible enzyme in the upper half of the pathway. Regulation of PaPK by a carboxylate molecule rather than a sugar phosphate may reflect a step in the evolution of glycolysis that predates the dominance of sugars in metabolism.

Inhibition of formation of α-synuclein inclusions by mannosylglycerate in a yeast model of Parkinson's disease.

BACKGROUND: Protein aggregation in the brain is a central hallmark in many neurodegenerative diseases. In Parkinson's disease, α-synuclein (α-Syn) is the major component of the intraneuronal inclusions found in the brains of patients. Current therapeutics is merely symptomatic, and there is a pressing need for developing novel therapies. Previously we showed that mannosylglycerate (MG), a compatible solute typical of marine microorganisms thriving in hot environments, is highly effective in protecting a variety of model proteins against thermal denaturation and aggregation in vitro. METHODS: Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells expressing eGFP-tagged α-Syn, were further engineered to synthesize MG. The number of cells with fluorescent foci was assessed by fluorescence microscopy. Fluorescence spectroscopy and transmission electron microscopy were used to monitor fibril formation in vitro. RESULTS: We observed a 3.3-fold reduction in the number of cells with α-Syn foci and mild attenuation of α-Syn-induced toxicity. Accordingly, sucrose gradient analysis confirmed a clear reduction in the size-range of α-Syn species in the cells. MG did not affect the expression levels of α-Syn or its degradation rate. Moreover, MG did not induce molecular chaperones (Hsp104, Hsp70 and Hsp40), suggesting the implication of other mechanisms for α-Syn stabilization. MG also inhibited α-Syn fibrillation in vitro. CONCLUSIONS: MG acts as a chemical chaperone and the stabilization mechanism involves direct solute/protein interactions. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE: This is the first demonstration of the anti-aggregating ability of MG in the intracellular milieu. The work shows that MG is a good candidate to inspire the development of new drugs for protein-misfolding diseases.

Poly[3-(3, 4-dihydroxyphenyl) glyceric acid] from Comfrey exerts anti-cancer efficacy against human prostate cancer via targeting androgen receptor, cell cycle arrest and apoptosis.

The major obstacles in human prostate cancer (PCA) treatment are the development of resistance to androgen ablation therapy leading to hormone-refractory state and the toxicity associated with chemotherapeutic drugs. Thus, the identification of additional non-toxic agents that are effective against both androgen-dependent and androgen-independent PCA is needed. In the present study, we investigated the efficacy of a novel phytochemical poly[3-(3, 4-dihydroxyphenyl)glyceric acid] (p-DGA) from Caucasian species of comfrey (Symphytum caucasicum) and its synthetic derivative syn-2, 3-dihydroxy-3-(3, 4-dihydroxyphenyl) propionic acid (m-DGA) against PCA LNCaP and 22Rv1 cells. We found that both p-DGA and m-DGA suppressed the growth and induced death in PCA cells, with comparatively lesser cytotoxicity towards non-neoplastic human prostate epithelial cells. Furthermore, we also found that both p-DGA and m-DGA caused G(1) arrest in PCA cells through modulating the expression of cell cycle regulators, especially an increase in CDKIs (p21 and p27). In addition, p-DGA and m-DGA induced apoptotic death by activating caspases, and also strongly decreased AR and PSA expression. Consistent with in vitro results, our in vivo study showed that p-DGA feeding strongly inhibited 22Rv1 tumors growth by 76% and 88% at 2.5 and 5mg/kg body weight doses, respectively, without any toxicity, together with a strong decrease in PSA level in plasma; and a decrease in PCNA, AR and PSA expression but increase in p21/p27 expression and apoptosis in tumor tissues from p-DGA-fed mice. Overall, present study identifies p-DGA as a potent agent against PCA without any toxicity, and supports its clinical application.

Stepwise synthesis of 2,3-O-dipalmitoyl-D-glyceric acid and an in vitro evaluation of its cytotoxicity.

2,3-O-Dipalmitoyl-D-glyceric acid (PA2-DGA) was synthesized from D-glyceric acid calcium salt and palmitoyl chloride with improved yield. Direct condensation between the D-glyceric acid calcium salt and palmitoyl chloride produced PA2-DGA with a yield of <10%, whereas stepwise synthesis yielded this compound at up to 24% of overall yield. PA2-DGA was then subjected to a cytotoxic test using normal human dermal fibroblasts and primary normal human dermal microvascular endothelial cells. This compound had no toxic effects on human cells in vitro at concentrations up to 34 µM.

Effect of glyceric acid calcium salt on the viability of ethanol-dosed gastric cells.

D-Glyceric acid (D-GA) calcium has been reported to accelerate ethanol oxidation in vivo in rats (Eriksson et al., Metabolism, 56, 895-898 (2007)). However, no other reports have shown that D-GA can reduce the harmful effects of ethanol. In this study, the effects of D-, L-, and DL-GA calcium on ethanol-dosed gastric cell viability were investigated using human gastric carcinoma cells (Kato III) and normal rat gastric mucosa cells (RGM1). Addition of 2% and 3 % ethanol to Kato III and RGM1 cells, respectively, decreased their cell viability by approximately 20-50 % after 24 or 72 h of cultivation. In 2 % ethanol-dosed Kato III cells cultivated for 24 h, addition of 0.002-20 µg/mL D- and L-GA calcium did not affect cell viability. Similarly, addition of less than 20 µg/mL DL-GA calcium did not affect cell viability. However, when 20 µg/mL DL-GA calcium was added, cell viability increased by 35.7 % after 72 h of incubation, compared to the viability of control cells without ethanol or GA. Addition of 20 µg/mL DL-GA calcium to 3 % ethanol-dosed RGM1 cells cultivated for 24 or 72 h also increased cell viability up to those observed in control cells. These results suggest that a racemic mixture of GA may have the strongest effect on enhancing the viability of ethanol-exposed cells.

Synthesis of dilinoleoyl-D-glyceric acid and evaluation of its cytotoxicity to human dermal fibroblast and endothelial cells.

A novel derivative of glyceric acid (GA), dilinoleoyl-D-glyceric acid (LA2-DGA), was synthesized from D-GA calcium salt and linoleoyl chloride and evaluated for cytotoxicity. The D-GA calcium salt was first reacted with 4-methoxybezylchloride, and the resulting compound was esterified with linoleoyl chloride. This reaction was followed by hydrolysis of the 4-methoxybenzyl moiety, yielding LA2-DGA. LA2-DGA was then subjected to cytotoxicity testing using normal human dermal fibroblasts and primary normal human dermal microvascular endothelial cells. LA2-DGA showed no significant toxic effects in either type of cell.

Synthesis and evaluation of dioleoyl glyceric acids showing antitrypsin activity.

Previously, Lesová et al. reported the isolation and identification of metabolite OR-1, showing antitrypsin activity, produced during fermentation by Penicillium funiculosum. The structure of OR-1 was a mixture of glyceric acid (GA), esterified with C(14)-C(18) fatty acids, and oleic acid (C18:1) as the most predominant fatty acid (Folia Microbiol. 46, 21-23, 2001). In this study, dioleoyl D-GA and dioleoyl L-GA were synthesized via diesterification with oleoyl chloride, and their antitrypsin activities were evaluated using both a disk diffusion method and spectral absorption measurements. The results show that both compounds and their equivalent mixtures possess antitrypsin activities; however, their IC(50) values (approximately 2 mM) are much higher than that of OR-1 (4.25 µM), suggesting that dioleoyl GA does not play a major role in the OR-1 antitrypsin activity.

Nonphosphorylating glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase is phosphorylated in wheat endosperm at serine-404 by an SNF1-related protein kinase allosterically inhibited by ribose-5-phosphate.

Nonphosphorylating glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (np-Ga3PDHase) is a cytosolic unconventional glycolytic enzyme of plant cells regulated by phosphorylation in heterotrophic tissues. After interaction with 14-3-3 proteins, the phosphorylated enzyme becomes less active and more sensitive to regulation by adenylates and inorganic pyrophosphate. Here, we acknowledge that in wheat (Triticum aestivum), np-Ga3PDHase is specifically phosphorylated by the SnRK (SNF1-related) protein kinase family. Interestingly, only the kinase present in heterotrophic tissues (endosperm and shoots, but not in leaves) was found active. The specific SnRK partially purified from endosperm exhibited a requirement for Mg(2+) or Mn(2+) (being Ca(2+) independent), having a molecular mass of approximately 200 kD. The kinase also phosphorylated standard peptides SAMS, AMARA, and SP46, as well as endogenous sucrose synthase, results suggesting that it could be a member of the SnRK1 subfamily. Concurrently, the partially purified wheat SnRK was recognized by antibodies raised against a peptide conserved between SnRK1s from sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) and maize (Zea mays) developing seeds. The wheat kinase was allosterically inhibited by ribose-5-phosphate and, to a lesser extent, by fructose-1,6-bisphosphate and 3-phosphoglycerate, while glucose-6-phosphate (the main effector of spinach [Spinacia oleracea] leaves, SnRK1) and trehalose-6-phosphate produced little or no effect. Results support a distinctive allosteric regulation of SnRK1 present in photosynthetic or heterotrophic plant tissues. After in silico analysis, we constructed two np-Ga3PDHase mutants, S404A and S447A, identifying serine-404 as the target of phosphorylation. Results suggest that both np-Ga3PDHase and the specific kinase could be under control, critically affecting the metabolic scenario involving carbohydrates and reducing power partition and storage in heterotrophic plant cells.

Disruption of the membrane-bound alcohol dehydrogenase-encoding gene improved glycerol use and dihydroxyacetone productivity in Gluconobacter oxydans.

Dihydroxyacetone (DHA) production from glycerol by Gluconobacter oxydans is an industrial form of fermentation, but some problems exist related to microbial DHA production. For example, glycerol inhibits DHA production and affects its biological activity. G. oxydans produces both DHA and glyceric acid (GA) from glycerol simultaneously, and membrane-bound glycerol dehydrogenase and membrane-bound alcohol dehydrogenases are involved in the two reactions, respectively. We discovered that the G. oxydans mutant DeltaadhA, in which the membrane-bound alcohol dehydrogenase-encoding gene (adhA) was disrupted, significantly improved its ability to grow in a higher concentration of glycerol and to produce DHA compared to a wild-type strain. DeltaadhA grew on 220 g/l of initial glycerol and produced 125 g/l of DHA during a 3-d incubation, whereas the wild-type did not. Resting DeltaadhA cells converted 230 g/l of glycerol aqueous solution to 139.7 g/l of DHA during a 3-d incubation. The inhibitory effect of glycerate sodium salt on DeltaadhA was investigated. An increase in the glycerate concentration at the beginning of growth resulted in decreases in both growth and DHA production.

Enantioselective synthesis and antioxidant activity of 3-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-glyceric acid--basic monomeric moiety of a biologically active polyether from Symphytum asperum and S. caucasicum.

The racemic and enantioselective synthesis of a novel glyceric acid derivative, namely, 2,3-dihydroxy-3-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-propionic acid as well as the antioxidant activities is described. The virtually pure enantiomers, (+)-(2R,3S)-2,3-dihydroxy-3-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-propionic acid and (-)-(2S,3R)-2,3-dihydroxy-3-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-propionic acid were synthesized for the first time via Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation of trans-caffeic acid derivatives using the enantiocomplementary catalysts, (DHQD)(2)-PHAL and (DHQ)(2)-PHAL. The determination of enantiomeric purity of the novel chiral glyceric acid derivatives was performed by high-performance liquid chromatographic techniques on the stage of their alkylated precursors. The novel glyceric acid derivatives show strong antioxidant activity against hypochlorite and N,N-diphenyl-N-picryl-hydrazyl free radical. Their antioxidant activity is about 40-fold higher than that of the corresponding natural polyether and three-fold higher of trans-caffeic acid itself.

Single-step enzymatic synthesis of (R)-2-O-alpha-D-glucopyranosyl glycerate, a compatible solute from micro-organisms that functions as a protein stabiliser.

Regioselective glucosylation of R-glycerate catalysed by sucrose phosphorylase in the presence of sucrose as the donor substrate provided the natural compatible solute (R)-2-O-alpha-D-glucopyranosyl glycerate with complete regioselectivity in an optimised synthetic yield of 90% R-glycerate converted and a concentration of about 270 mM.

Phosphoglycerate mutase in mammalian striated muscles: subcellular localization and binding partners.

Contrary to previously published data, we have found that in mammalian skeletal muscles, phosphoglycerate mutase (PGM) is organized in a regular, striated fashion within the sarcomere. In the absence of the enzyme effectors, PGM localizes mainly at the M-line, but under conditions typical for contracting muscle, the enzyme accumulates within the I-band of the sarcomere. Searching for muscle PGM binding partners, we have found that PGM interacts with several enzymes of triose phosphate metabolism. It might suggest that PGM is a central structural element of the muscle glycolytic complex located within the isotropic region of the sarcomere.