eccDNAs are apoptotic products with high innate immunostimulatory activity.

Extrachromosomal circular DNA elements (eccDNAs) have been described in the literature for several decades, and are known for their broad existence across different species1,2. However, their biogenesis and functions are largely unknown. By developing a new circular DNA enrichment method, here we purified and sequenced full-length eccDNAs with Nanopore sequencing. We found that eccDNAs map across the entire genome in a close to random manner, suggesting a biogenesis mechanism of random ligation of genomic DNA fragments. Consistent with this idea, we found that apoptosis inducers can increase eccDNA generation, which is dependent on apoptotic DNA fragmentation followed by ligation by DNA ligase 3. Importantly, we demonstrated that eccDNAs can function as potent innate immunostimulants in a manner that is independent of eccDNA sequence but dependent on eccDNA circularity and the cytosolic DNA sensor Sting. Collectively, our study not only revealed the origin, biogenesis and immunostimulant function of eccDNAs but also uncovered their sensing pathway and potential clinical implications in immune response.

Hepatitis B virus nucleocapsid uncoating: biological consequences and regulation by cellular nucleases.

Upon infection of hepatocyte, Hepatitis B virus (HBV) genomic DNA in nucleocapsid is transported into the nucleus and converted into a covalently closed circular (ccc) DNA to serve as the template for transcription of viral RNAs. Viral DNA in the cytoplasmic progeny nucleocapsid is another resource to fuel cccDNA amplification. Apparently, nucleocapsid disassembly, or viral genomic DNA uncoating, is an essential step for cccDNA synthesis from both de novo infection and intracellular amplification pathways, and has a potential to activate DNA sensors and induce an innate immune response in infected hepatocytes. However, where and how the nucleocapsid disassembly occurs is not well understood. The work reported herein showed that the enhanced disassembly of progeny mature nucleocapsids in the cytoplasm supported cccDNA intracellular amplification, but failed to activate the cGAS-STING-mediated innate immune response in hepatocytes. Interestingly, while expression of a cytoplasmic exonuclease TREX1 in human hepatoma cells supporting HBV replication significantly reduced the amounts of cccDNA as well as its precursor, deproteinized relaxed circular (rc) DNA, expression of TREX1 in sodium taurocholate cotransporting polypeptide-expressing human hepatoma cells did not inhibit cccDNA synthesis from de novo HBV infection. The results from this cytoplasmic nuclease protection assay imply that the disassembly of progeny mature nucleocapsids and removal of viral DNA polymerase covalently linked to the 5' end of minus strand of rcDNA take place in the cytoplasm. On the contrary, the disassembly of virion-derived nucleocapsids during de novo infection may occur at a different subcellular compartment and possibly via distinct mechanisms.

A Novel Cre Recombinase-Mediated In Vivo Minicircle (CRIM) DNA Vaccine Platform for Veterinary Application.

Minicircle DNA (mcDNA) has been considered to be an alternative choice of traditional DNA vaccine due to its much smaller size, resulting in more efficient antigen synthesis, enhanced and long-lasting adaptive immune response, especially cellular immune response. However, the disadvantages such as relative high cost and labor intensiveness severely restrict its direct application in the field of veterinary vaccine. Here, we describe a novel Cre Recombinase-mediated In vivo McDNA platform, named CRIM, in which the parental plasmid could spontaneously transform into mcDNA by itself after transfection or oral administration. This CRIM vaccine platform might serve as a novel oral antigen delivery system for any infectious diseases, especially for veterinary application.

Nuclear Sensor Interferon-Inducible Protein 16 Inhibits the Function of Hepatitis B Virus Covalently Closed Circular DNA by Integrating Innate Immune Activation and Epigenetic Suppression.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Nuclear-located covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA) of hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a determining factor for HBV persistence and the key obstacle for a cure of chronic hepatitis B. However, it remains unclear whether and how the host immune system senses HBV cccDNA and its biological consequences. APPROACH AND RESULTS: Here, we demonstrated that interferon-inducible protein 16 (IFI16) could serve as a unique innate sensor to recognize and bind to HBV cccDNA in hepatic nuclei, leading to the inhibition of cccDNA transcription and HBV replication. Mechanistically, our data showed that IFI16 promoted the epigenetic suppression of HBV cccDNA by targeting an interferon-stimulated response element (ISRE) present in cccDNA. It is of interest that this ISRE was also revealed to play an important role in IFI16-activated type I interferon responses. Furthermore, our data revealed that HBV could down-regulate the expression level of IFI16 in hepatocytes, and there was a negative correlation between IFI16 and HBV transcripts in liver biopsies, suggesting the possible role of IFI16 in suppressing cccDNA function under physiological conditions. CONCLUSIONS: The nuclear sensor IFI16 suppresses cccDNA function by integrating innate immune activation and epigenetic regulation by targeting the ISRE of cccDNA, and IFI16 may present as a therapeutic target against HBV infection.

Silencing SOCS3 Markedly Deteriorates Spondyloarthritis in Mice Induced by Minicircle DNA Expressing IL23.

Objective: Despite extensive studies, the precise mechanism underlying spondyloarthritis, especially ankylosing spondylitis, remains elusive. This study aimed to develop an ideal animal model for an insight into mechanism of spondyloarthritis and functional relevance of SOCS3 in spondyloarthritis. Methods: Since SOCS3 is a major regulator of IL23-STAT3 signaling, we generated SOCS3 knockdown transgenic (TG) mice for development of an animal model of spondyloarthritis. A hydrodynamic delivery method was employed to deliver minicircle DNA expressing IL23 (mc-IL23) into wild-type (WT) and the TG mice. Knockdown/overexpression systems mediated by lentivirus and retrovirus were used to determine whether SOCS3 regulated osteoblast differentiation. Results: Forced expression of IL23 induced severe joint destruction and extensive bone loss in SOCS3 knockdown TG mice, while this treatment only caused moderate symptoms in WT mice. Furthermore, severe spondyloarthritis was found in IL23-injected TG mice as compared to mild disease observed in WT controls under same condition. Moreover, our studies showed that IL23 promoted osteoblast differentiation via activation of STAT3 pathway and disruption of SOCS3 expression greatly increased phosphorylation of STAT3. In addition, silencing SOCS3 resulted in enhanced osteoblast differentiation through activation of Smad1/5/9 signaling, as evidenced by elevated phosphorylation level of Smad1/5/9. Experiments further demonstrated that SOCS3 interacted with Smad1 and thus suppressed the BMP2-Smad signaling. Conclusions: The results reveal that SOCS3 is involved in IL23-induced spondyloarthritis and acts as a key regulator of osteoblast differentiation, and suggest that SOCS3 knockdown TG mice may be an ideal animal model for further studies of spondyloarthritis.

CD56bright natural killer cells induce HBsAg reduction via cytolysis and cccDNA decay in long-term entecavir-treated patients switching to peginterferon alfa-2a.

HBV surface antigen (HBsAg) reduction is well observed in chronic hepatitis B (CHB) patients treated with pegylated interferon alpha-2a (PegIFNα). However, the mechanism of HBsAg suppression has not been fully elucidated. Twenty-seven of 55 entecavir-treated CHB e antigen positive patients were switched to PegIFNα treatment (Group A) whereas 28 patients continued entecavir treatment (Group B). The percentage or absolute number of CD56bright /CD56dim NK cells, expression of receptors and cytokines were evaluated by flow cytometry for 48 weeks and correlated with treatment efficacy. In vitro, purified NK cells were co-cultured with HepAD38 cells for measurement of HBsAg, apoptosis and covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA). In association with a reduction of HBsAg, the percentage and absolute number of CD56bright NK cells was significantly elevated in patients in group A, especially in Virologic Responders (VRs, HBsAg decreased). Furthermore, the percentage of NKp30+ , NKp46+ , TRAIL+ , TNF-α+ and IFNγ+ CD56bright NK cells were significantly expanded in Group A, which were positively correlated with the decline of HBsAg at week 48. In vitro, peripheral NK cells from Group A induced a decline of HBsAg in comparison with NK cells from Group B which was significantly inhibited by anti-TRAIL, anti-TNF-α and anti-IFNγ antibodies. Furthermore, apoptosis of HepAD38 cells and levels of cccDNA, were significantly reduced by TRAIL+ and TNF-α+ /IFNγ+ NK cells from Group A, respectively. A functional restoration of CD56bright NK cells in entecavir-treated patients who were switched to PegIFNα contributes to HBsAg and cccDNA clearance through TRAIL-induced cytolysis and TNF-α/IFNγ-mediated noncytolytic pathways.

Expression and replication of virus-like circular DNA in human cells.

The consumption of bovine milk and meat is considered a risk factor for colon- and breast cancer formation, and milk consumption has also been implicated in an increased risk for developing Multiple Sclerosis (MS). A number of highly related virus-like DNAs have been recently isolated from bovine milk and sera and from a brain sample of a MS patient. As a genetic activity of these Acinetobacter-related bovine milk and meat factors (BMMFs) is unknown in eukaryotes, we analyzed their expression and replication potential in human HEK293TT cells. While all analyzed BMMFs show transcriptional activity, the MS brain isolate MSBI1.176, sharing homology with a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy-associated DNA molecule, is transcribed at highest levels. We show expression of a replication-associated protein (Rep), which is highly conserved among all BMMFs, and serological tests indicate a human anti-Rep immune response. While the cow milk isolate CMI1.252 is replication-competent in HEK293TT cells, replication of MSBI1.176 is complemented by CMI1.252, pointing at an interplay during the establishment of persistence in human cells. Transcriptome profiling upon BMMF expression identified host cellular gene expression changes related to cell cycle progression and cell viability control, indicating potential pathways for a pathogenic involvement of BMMFs.

A new hepatitis B virus e antigen-negative strain gene used as a reference sequence in an animal model.

Infection with hepatitis B virus (HBV) e-antigen (HBeAg)-negative strains is increasingly prevalent. Currently, detailed information of the obtained natural HBV strain is not available except for the B genotype and HBeAg-negative. The aim of the present study was to characterize the natural genetic variation of the HBeAg-negative strain and investigate its function. The genic sequence was determined using Sanger sequencing, and compared to related sequences using alignment and phylogenetic analysis. In vivo, virus-specific serum markers were investigated in CBA/CaJ mice. The sequence had a full genome length of 3215 nucleotides. Sites 122, 125, 127, and 160 in S regions were identified as lysine, threonine, proline, and lysine respectively. The main four point variants including A1762T, G1764A, G1896A, and G1899A were detected in the full-length genome. The genotype of the sequence was B, with sub-genotype B2 and serological subtype adw2. The characterize of the natural genetic variation strain showed no reported drug-resistant variant in P region and no reported immune escape site in S region. The strain will increase viral replication and infection for mutations A1762T and G1764A in the basal core promoter region, and mutations G1896A and G1899A in the pre-core region. The G1896A variant resulted in a premature stop codon and abolished HBeAg expression. HBsAg persisted for 26 weeks and HBeAg was still negative in CBA/CaJ mice. The present sequence is representative of the HBeAg-negative genome and may serve as a valuable reference for studying HBeAg-negative strains. The present findings were successfully verified in CBA/CaJ mice, demonstrating good applicability of the sequence.

HBVcircle: A novel tool to investigate hepatitis B virus covalently closed circular DNA.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Hepatitis B virus (HBV) covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA) persists as a stable episome in infected hepatocytes and serves as a template for the transcription of all viral genes. Due to the narrow host range of HBV, the development of a robust mouse model that supports cccDNA-dependent viral replication is a key hurdle in the development of novel HBV therapeutics. This study aimed to develop a novel tool to investigate HBV cccDNA. METHODS: Through minicircle technology, HBVcircle, a recombinant cccDNA, was easily generated and extracted from a genetically engineered E. coli strain. We characterized the performance of HBVcircle in cell culture by transfection and in immunocompetent mice by hydrodynamic injection (HDI). RESULTS: We demonstrated that HBVcircle formed authentic cccDNA-like molecules in vitro in transiently transfected hepatic cells and in vivo in mouse liver after HDI. HBVcircle supported high levels and persistent HBV replication. In addition, we investigated different factors affecting HBV in vivo replication and persistence, including the host genetic background, vector design and dosage, viral genes and genotypes, and immune activation status. Furthermore, different classes of anti-HBV drugs were also assessed with the HBVcircle system. CONCLUSION: Compared with previous reported HBV mouse models which employ other viral vectors to introduce overlength HBV genomes, viral gene expression and associated phenotypes are entirely driven by cccDNA-like viral genomes in the HBVcircle mouse model. Therefore, the HBVcircle is a close mimic of cccDNA, and it represents a novel tool for addressing HBV cccDNA related biological questions and for anti-HBV drug discovery. LAY SUMMARY: To establish a mouse model that supports cccDNA-dependent transcription, a novel tool named HBVcircle, was developed with minicircle technology. HBVcircle formed authentic cccDNA-like molecules in hepatocytes, and supported high levels and persistent HBV replication in vivo. The HBVcircle is a close mimic of cccDNA, and it represents a novel tool for addressing HBV cccDNA related biological questions and for anti-HBV drug discovery.

Human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived hepatic cell lines as a new model for host interaction with hepatitis B virus.

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is not eradicated by current antiviral therapies due to persistence of HBV covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA) in host cells, and thus development of novel culture models for productive HBV infection is urgently needed, which will allow the study of HBV cccDNA eradication. To meet this need, we developed culture models of HBV infection using human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived hepatocyte lineages, including immature proliferating hepatic progenitor-like cell lines (iPS-HPCs) and differentiated hepatocyte-like cells (iPS-Heps). These cells were susceptible to HBV infection, produced HBV particles, and maintained innate immune responses. The infection efficiency of HBV in iPS-HPCs predominantly depended on the expression levels of sodium taurocholate cotransporting polypeptide (NTCP), and was low relative to iPS-Heps: however, long-term culture of iPS-Heps was difficult. To provide a model for HBV persistence, iPS-HPCs overexpressing NTCP were established. The long-term persistence of HBV cccDNA was detected in iPS-HPCs overexpressing NTCP, and depended on the inhibition of the Janus-kinase signaling pathway. In conclusion, this study provides evidence that iPS-derived hepatic cell lines can be utilized for novel HBV culture models with genetic variation to investigate the interactions between HBV and host cells and the development of anti-HBV strategies.

Associations between activation-induced cytidine deaminase/apolipoprotein B mRNA editing enzyme, catalytic polypeptide-like cytidine deaminase expression, hepatitis B virus (HBV) replication and HBV-associated liver disease (Review).

The hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is a major risk factor in the development of chronic hepatitis (CH) and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The activation­induced cytidine deaminase (AID)/apolipoprotein B mRNA editing enzyme, catalytic polypeptide­like (APOBEC) family of cytidine deaminases is significant in innate immunity, as it restricts numerous viruses, including HBV, through hypermutation­dependent and ­independent mechanisms. It is important to induce covalently closed circular (ccc)DNA degradation by interferon­α without causing side effects in the infected host cell. Furthermore, organisms possess multiple mechanisms to regulate the expression of AID/APOBECs, control their enzymatic activity and restrict their access to DNA or RNA substrates. Therefore, the AID/APOBECs present promising targets for preventing and treating viral infections. In addition, gene polymorphisms of the AID/APOBEC family may alter host susceptibility to HBV acquisition and CH disease progression. Through G­to­A hypermutation, AID/APOBECs also edit HBV DNA and facilitate the mutation of HBV DNA, which may assist the virus to evolve and potentially escape from the immune responses. The AID/APOBEC family and their associated editing patterns may also exert oncogenic activity. Understanding the effects of cytidine deaminases in CH virus-induced hepatocarcinogenesis may aid with developing efficient prophylactic and therapeutic strategies against HCC.

HBV and the immune response.

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection acquired in adult life is generally self-limited while chronic persistence of the virus is the prevalent outcome when infection is acquired perinatally. Both control of infection and liver cell injury are strictly dependent upon protective immune responses, because hepatocyte damage is the price that the host must pay to get rid of intracellular virus. Resolution of acute hepatitis B is associated with functionally efficient, multispecific antiviral T-cell responses which are preceded by a poor induction of intracellular innate responses at the early stages of infection. Persistent control of infection is provided by long-lasting protective memory, which is probably sustained by continuous stimulation of the immune system by trace amounts of virus which are never totally eliminated, persisting in an occult episomic form in the nucleus of liver cells even after recovery from acute infection. Chronic virus persistence is instead characterized by a lack of protective T-cell memory maturation and by an exhaustion of HBV-specific T-cell responses. Persistent exposure of T cells to high antigen loads is a key determinant of functional T-cell impairment but also other mechanisms can contribute to T-cell inhibition, including the tolerogenic effect of the liver environment. The degree of T-cell impairment is variable and its severity is related to the level of virus replication and antigen load. The antiviral T-cell function is more efficient in patients who can control infection either partially, such as inactive HBsAg carriers with low levels of virus replication, or completely, such as patients who achieve HBsAg loss either spontaneously or after antiviral therapy. Thus, understanding the features of the immune responses associated with control of infection is needed for the successful design of novel immune modulatory therapies based on the reconstitution of efficient antiviral responses in chronic HBV patients.

A new strategy to deliver synthetic protein drugs: self-reproducible biologics using minicircles.

Biologics are the most successful drugs used in anticytokine therapy. However, they remain partially unsuccessful because of the elevated cost of their synthesis and purification. Development of novel biologics has also been hampered by the high cost. Biologics are made of protein components; thus, theoretically, they can be produced in vivo. Here we tried to invent a novel strategy to allow the production of synthetic drugs in vivo by the host itself. The recombinant minicircles encoding etanercept or tocilizumab, which are synthesized currently by pharmaceutical companies, were injected intravenously into animal models. Self-reproduced etanercept and tocilizumab were detected in the serum of mice. Moreover, arthritis subsided in mice that were injected with minicircle vectors carrying biologics. Self-reproducible biologics need neither factory facilities for drug production nor clinical processes, such as frequent drug injection. Although this novel strategy is in its very early conceptual stage, it seems to represent a potential alternative method for the delivery of biologics.

Modeling the effects of covalently closed circular DNA and dendritic cells in chronic HBV infection.

The contribution of covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA) and dendritic cells (DCs) to the progression of chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection remains largely unknown. A dynamic model with seven cell types was proposed based on the biological mechanisms of viral replication and the host immune response. The cccDNA self-amplification rate was found to be closely related to both the basic reproduction number of the virus and the immune response. The combination of the cccDNA self-amplification rate and the initial activated DC count induces rich dynamics. Applying our model to the clinical data of untreated patients, we found that chronic patients have a high cccDNA self-amplification rate. For antiviral treatment, an overall drug effectiveness was introduced and the critical drug effectiveness was obtained. The model predicts that timely long-term therapy is needed to reduce the symptoms of HBV and to maintain the benefits of treatment.

Minicircle DNA is superior to plasmid DNA in eliciting antigen-specific CD8+ T-cell responses.

Clinical trials reveal that plasmid DNA (pDNA)-based gene delivery must be improved to realize its potential to treat human disease. Current pDNA platforms suffer from brief transgene expression, primarily due to the spread of transcriptionally repressive chromatin initially deposited on plasmid bacterial backbone sequences. Minicircle (MC) DNA lacks plasmid backbone sequences and correspondingly confers higher levels of sustained transgene expression upon delivery, accounting for its success in preclinical gene therapy models. In this study, we show for the first time that MC DNA also functions as a vaccine platform. We used a luciferase reporter transgene to demonstrate that intradermal delivery of MC DNA, relative to pDNA, resulted in significantly higher and persistent levels of luciferase expression in mouse skin. Next, we immunized mice intradermally with DNA encoding a peptide that, when presented by the appropriate major histocompatibility complex class I molecule, was recognized by endogenous CD8(+) T cells. Finally, immunization with peptide-encoding MC DNA, but not the corresponding full-length (FL) pDNA, conferred significant protection in mice challenged with Listeria monocytogenes expressing the model peptide. Together, our results suggest intradermal delivery of MC DNA may prove more efficacious for prophylaxis than traditional pDNA vaccines.

In vivo electroporation improves therapeutic potency of a DNA vaccine targeting hepadnaviral proteins.

This preclinical study investigated the therapeutic efficacy of electroporation (EP)-based delivery of plasmid DNA (pDNA) encoding viral proteins (envelope, core) and IFN-γ in the duck model of chronic hepatitis B virus (DHBV) infection. Importantly, only DNA EP-therapy resulted in a significant decrease in mean viremia titers and in intrahepatic covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA) levels in chronic DHBV-carrier animals, compared with standard needle pDNA injection (SI). In addition, DNA EP-therapy stimulated in all virus-carriers a humoral response to DHBV preS protein, recognizing a broader range of major antigenic regions, including neutralizing epitopes, compared with SI. DNA EP-therapy led also to significant higher intrahepatic IFN-γ RNA levels in DHBV-carriers compared to other groups, in the absence of adverse effects. We provide the first evidence on DNA EP-therapy benefit in terms of hepadnaviral infection clearance and break of immune tolerance in virus-carriers, supporting its clinical application for chronic hepatitis B.

Decreased level of recent thymic emigrants in CD4+ and CD8+T cells from CML patients.

BACKGROUND: T-cell immunodeficiency is a common feature in cancer patients, which may relate to initiation and development of tumor. Based on our previous finding, to further characterize the immune status, T cell proliferative history was analyzed in CD4+ and CD8+ T cells from chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) patients. METHODS: Quantitative analysis of deltaRec-psiJalpha signal joint T cell receptor excision circles (sjTRECs) was performed in PBMCs, CD3+, CD4+ and CD8+T cells by real-time PCR, and the analysis of 23 TRBV-D1 sjTRECs was performed by semi-nested PCR. Forty eight CML cases in chronic phase (CML-CP) were selected for this study and 17 healthy individuals served as controls. RESULTS: The levels of deltaRec-psiJalpha sjTRECs in PBMCs, CD3+, CD4+, and CD8+ T cells were significantly decreased in CML patients, compared with control groups. Moreover, the numbers of detectable TRBV subfamily sjTRECs, as well as the frequency of particular TRBV-BD1 sjTRECs in patients with CML were significantly lower than those from healthy individuals. CONCLUSIONS: We observed decreased levels of recent thymic emigrants in CD4+ and CD8+ T cells that may underlay the persistent immunodeficiency in CML patients.

Molecular mechanism of immune response induced by foreign plasmid DNA after oral administration in mice.

AIM: To study immune response induced by foreign plasmid DNA after oral administration in mice. METHODS: Mice were orally administered with 200 mug of plasmid pcDNA3 once and spleen was isolated 4 h and 18 h after administration. Total RNA was extracted from spleen and gene expression profile of BALB/c mice spleen was analyzed by using Affymetrix oligonucleotide GeneChip. Functional cluster analysis was conducted by GenMAPP software. RESULTS: At 4 h and 18 h after oral plasmid pcDNA3 administration, a number of immune-related genes, including cytokine and cytokine receptors, chemokines and chemokine receptor, complement molecule, proteasome, histocompatibility molecule, lymphocyte antigen complex and apoptotic genes, were up-regulated. Moreover, MAPPFinder results also showed that numerous immune response processes were up-regulated. In contrast, the immunoglobulin genes were down-regulated. CONCLUSION: Foreign plasmid DNA can modulate the genes expression related to immune system via the gastrointestinal tract, and further analysis of the related immune process may help understand the molecular mechanisms of immune response induced by foreign plasmid via the gastrointestinal tract.

Gut IgA class switch recombination in the absence of CD40 does not occur in the lamina propria and is independent of germinal centers.

Conflicting findings have recently been presented as to the sites and sources of B cells that undergo class switch recombination (CSR) to IgA in the gut. In this study we provide compelling evidence in CD40(-/-) mice demonstrating that IgA CSR can be independent of CD40 signaling and germinal center formation and does not occur in the gut lamina propria (LP) itself. We found that CD40(-/-) mice had near normal levels of gut total IgA despite lacking germinal centers and completely failing to raise specific responses against the T cell-dependent Ags cholera toxin and keyhole limpet hemocyanin. The Peyer's patches in CD40(-/-) mice expressed unexpectedly high levels of activation-induced cytidine deaminase mRNA and germline alpha transcripts, but few postswitch circular DNA transcripts, arguing against significant IgA CSR. Moreover and more surprisingly, wild-type mice exhibited no to low IgA CSR in mesenteric lymph nodes or isolated lymphoid follicles. Importantly, both strains failed to demonstrate any of the molecular markers for IgA CSR in the gut LP itself. Whereas all of the classical sites for IgA CSR in the GALT in CD40(-/-) mice appeared severely compromised for IgA CSR, B cells in the peritoneal cavity demonstrated the expression of activation-induced cytidine deaminase mRNA comparable to that of wild-type mice. However, peritoneal cavity B cells in both strains expressed intermediate levels of the germinal center marker GL7 and exhibited no germline alpha transcripts, and only three of 51 mice analyzed showed the presence of postswitch circular DNA transcripts. Taken together, these findings strongly argue for alternative inductive sites for gut IgA CSR against T cell-independent Ags outside of the GALT and the nonorganized LP.