Cadmium toxicity symptoms and uptake mechanism in plants: a review / Sintomas de toxicidade de cádmio e mecanismo de absorção em plantas: uma revisão

Cadmium (Cd) is one of non-essential heavy metals which is released into environment naturally or anthropogenically. It is highly persistent toxic metals that are exceptionally distressing industrial and agriculture activities by contaminating soil, water and food. Its long-duration endurance in soil and water results in accumulation and uptake into plants, leading to the food chain. This becomes a serious global problem threatening humans and animals as food chain components. Living organisms, especially humans, are exposed to Cd through plants as one of the main vegetative food sources. This review paper is concentrated on the symptoms of the plants affected by Cd toxicity. The absorption of Cd triggers several seen and unseen symptoms by polluted plants such as stunted growth, chlorosis, necrosis and wilting. Apart from that, factors that affect the uptake and translocation of Cd in plants are elaborated to understand the mechanism that contributes to its accumulation. By insight of Cd accumulation, this review also discussed the phytoremediation techniques-phytoextraction, phytostimulation, phytostabilization, phytovolatization and rhizofiltration in bioremediating the Cd.

O cádmio (Cd) é um dos metais pesados ​​não essenciais que é liberado no meio ambiente de forma natural ou antropogênica. São metais tóxicos altamente persistentes que prejudicam excepcionalmente as atividades industriais e agrícolas, contaminando o solo, a água e os alimentos. Sua resistência de longa duração no solo e na água resulta em acúmulo e absorção pelas plantas, levando à cadeia alimentar. Isso se torna um sério problema global que ameaça humanos e animais como componentes da cadeia alimentar. Os organismos vivos, principalmente os humanos, são expostos ao Cd através das plantas como uma das principais fontes de alimento vegetativo. Este artigo de revisão concentra-se nos sintomas das plantas afetadas pela toxicidade do Cd. A absorção de Cd desencadeia vários sintomas visíveis e invisíveis por plantas poluídas, como crescimento atrofiado, clorose, necrose e murcha. Além disso, são elaborados fatores que afetam a absorção e translocação de Cd nas plantas para entender o mecanismo que contribui para o seu acúmulo. A partir do conhecimento do acúmulo de Cd, esta revisão também discutiu as técnicas de fitorremediação - fitoextração, fitoestimulação, fitoestabilização, fitovolatização e rizofiltração na biorremediação do Cd.

Vigilancia de botulismo / Botulism surveillance

El botulismo se presenta como una enfermedad de distribución mundial, rara pero potencialmente mortal, de rápida evolución. Es una emergencia médica y epidemiológica y a los fines de la vigilancia, requiere notificación individual e inmediata. En el presente informe se describen medidas de prevención y control, y medidas de educación y prevención.

Heavy Metals and Human Health: Possible Exposure Pathways and the Competition for Protein Binding Sites.

Heavy metals enter the human body through the gastrointestinal tract, skin, or via inhalation. Toxic metals have proven to be a major threat to human health, mostly because of their ability to cause membrane and DNA damage, and to perturb protein function and enzyme activity. These metals disturb native proteins' functions by binding to free thiols or other functional groups, catalyzing the oxidation of amino acid side chains, perturbing protein folding, and/or displacing essential metal ions in enzymes. The review shows the physiological and biochemical effects of selected toxic metals interactions with proteins and enzymes. As environmental contamination by heavy metals is one of the most significant global problems, some detoxification strategies are also mentioned.

Nutrition, one-carbon metabolism and arsenic methylation.

Exposure to arsenic (As) is a major public health concern globally. Inorganic As (InAs) undergoes hepatic methylation to form monomethyl (MMAs)- and dimethyl (DMAs)-arsenical species, facilitating urinary As elimination. MMAsIII is considerably more toxic than either InAsIII or DMAsV, and a higher proportion of MMAs in urine has been associated with risk for a wide range of adverse health outcomes. Efficiency of As methylation differs substantially between species, between individuals, and across populations. One-carbon metabolism (OCM) is a biochemical pathway that provides methyl groups for the methylation of As, and is influenced by folate and other micronutrients, such as vitamin B12, choline, betaine and creatine. A growing body of evidence has demonstrated that OCM-related micronutrients play a critical role in As methylation. This review will summarize observational epidemiological studies, interventions, and relevant experimental evidence examining the role that OCM-related micronutrients have on As methylation, toxicity of As, and risk for associated adverse health-related outcomes. There is fairly robust evidence supporting the impact of folate on As methylation, and some evidence from case-control studies indicating that folate nutritional status influences risk for As-induced skin lesions and bladder cancer. However, the potential for folate to be protective for other As-related health outcomes, and the potential beneficial effects of other OCM-related micronutrients on As methylation and risk for health outcomes are less well studied and warrant additional research.

Interactions between Food Hazards and Intestinal Barrier: Impact on Foodborne Diseases.

The intestine is an important digestive organ of the human body, and its barrier is the guardian of the body from the external environment. The impairment of the intestinal barrier is believed to be an important determinant in various foodborne diseases. Food hazards can lead to the occurrence of many foodborne diseases represented by inflammation. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms of the impact of the food hazards on intestinal barriers is essential for promoting human health. This review examined the relationship between food hazards and the intestinal barrier in three aspects: apoptosis, imbalance of gut microbiota, and pro-inflammatory cytokines. The mechanism of dysfunctional gut microbiota caused by food hazards was also discussed. This review discusses the interaction among food hazards, intestinal barrier, and foodborne diseases and, thus, offers a new thought to deal with foodborne disease.

Is the Water Supply a Key Factor in Stingless Bees' Intoxication?

Water is an important resource for stingless bees, serving for both honey dilution and the composition of larval food inside nests, yet can be an important route of exposure to pesticides. Assuming bees can forage naturally on pesticide-contaminated or noncontaminated areas, we investigated whether water supply influences the choice between neonicotinoid-dosed or nondosed feeders and on mortality of the stingless bee, Melipona scutellaris (Latreille, Hymenoptera, Apidae). At the field concentration, there was no significant mortality; however, the bees were not able to distinguish the feeders. In the cages containing high-concentration feeders, with water supply, the bees preferred nondosed food, and with no water, the mortality increased. Considering that in the field it is common to find extrapolated concentrations, our work suggested that water may allow avoidance of high dosed food and minimize mortality.

A preliminary assessment of dietary exposure of ochratoxin A in Central Anatolia Region, Turkey.

The aim of this study was to determine dietary exposure to ochratoxin A (OTA) in Turkish adults. In this study, 500 food samples (50 rice, 50 wheat bread, 50 pasta, 50 raisins, 50 dried figs, 50 pistachios, 50 hazelnuts, 50 almonds, 50 chilli, 25 coffee, and 25 cocoa) collected from Turkey were analysed with a high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method. Moreover, a total of 370 analytical results (110 cereal-based snacks, 95 wine, 35 beer, and 130 chocolate) collected from our previous observations were also used in the evaluation of exposure estimates. OTA was found in 52% of cocoa, 42% of raisins, 40% of coffee, 34% of chilli, 14% of dried figs, 10% of pasta, 8% of pistachios, 6% of wheat bread, 4% of rice, and 4% of hazelnuts. The chronic dietary exposure to OTA for Turkish adults, using lower bound (LB) and upper bound (UB) concentrations, varied from 0.683 to 4.487 ng/kg body weight (b.w.) per week for mean estimate and from 3.976 to 5.760 ng/kg b.w. per week for the 95th percentile (P95) estimate. Cereals and cereal-based products made the largest contribution (75.3-85.7%) to OTA exposure. Both mean and P95 chronic exposure to OTA were greatly below the tolerable weekly intake of 120 ng/kg b.w. per week and thus not a health concern for Turkish adults.

Food toxins and the Caribbean Parkinson plus types.

In the 90's, clinico pathological studies have considerably improved the diagnosis of specific and rare neurodegenerative diseases. After a training in Parkinsons' disease in Paris, the author moved to French West Indies (Guadeloupe) and observed a high incidence of atypical parkinsonism with dementia, unresponsive to levodopa. Similar features were observed in Martinique. An environmental origin has been suspected with the exposure to toxins of annonaceae leaves and seeds. The candidate toxins are acetogenins acting as mitochondrial poison. This was demonstrated in neuronal cell cultures, and in animals. However, the agency for food security did not conclude that Annonaceae should not be used for herbal (medicinal) tea, even if the population is now aware about the possible risk of parkinsonism after exposure to annonaceae acetogenins.

Safety assessment of a lyophilized biomass of Tetraselmis chuii (TetraSOD®) in a 90 day feeding study.

TetraSOD® is a powder of the lyophilized biomass of Tetraselmis chuii strain CCFM03, a marine microalga with a history of use as feed in the aquaculture industry. Recently, algae including T. chuii have been investigated for their potential use in human food. However, published toxicology studies addressing the safety of T. chuii as a food ingredient are not available. To address this issue, the toxicity of TetraSOD® was evaluated using a 90-day oral toxicology study in rats following the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) test guideline 408. No treatment-related mortality or clinical signs were noted with TetraSOD® at doses of 625, 1667, or 2500 mg/kg/day. Additionally, no adverse effects on haematology, blood biochemistry, organ weights, gross or histopathology were observed. The Non Observed Adverse Effect Level (NOAEL) for TetraSOD® is greater than the highest tested dose of 2500 mg/kg/day.

Detoxification Genes Differ Between Cactus-, Fruit-, and Flower-Feeding Drosophila.

We use annotated genomes of 14 Drosophila species covering diverse host use phenotypes to test whether 4 gene families that often have detoxification functions are associated with host shifts among species. Bark, slime flux, flower, and generalist necrotic fruit-feeding species all have similar numbers of carboxyl/cholinesterase, glutathione S-transferase, cytochrome P450, and UDP-glucuronosyltransferase genes. However, species feeding on toxic Morinda citrifolia fruit and the fresh fruit-feeding Drosophila suzukii have about 30 and 60 more, respectively. ABC transporters show a different pattern, with the flower-feeding D. elegans and the generalist necrotic fruit and cactus feeder D. hydei having about 20 and >100 more than the other species, respectively. Surprisingly, despite the complex secondary chemistry we find that 3 cactophilic specialists in the mojavensis species cluster have variably fewer genes than any of the other species across all 4 families. We also find 82 positive selection events across the 4 families, with the terminal D. suzukii and M. citrifolia-feeding D. sechellia branches again having the highest number of such events in proportion to their respective branch lengths. Many of the genes involved in these host-use-specific gene number differences or positive selection events lie in specific clades of the gene families that have been recurrently associated with detoxification. Several genes are also found to be involved in multiple duplication and/or positive selection events across the species studied regardless of their host use phenotypes; the most frequently involved are the ABC transporter CG1718, which is not in a specific clade associated with detoxification, and the α-esterase gene cluster, which is.

Thermal processing food-related toxicants: a review.

Heterocyclic aromatic amines, acrylamide, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural, furan, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, nitrosamines, acrolein, chloropropanols and chloroesters are generated toxicants formed in some foodstuffs, mainly starchy and protein-rich food during thermal treatment such as frying, roasting and baking. The formation of these chemical compounds is associated with development of aromas, colors and flavors. One of the challenges facing the food industry today is to minimize these toxicants without adversely affecting the positive attributes of thermal processing. To achieve this objective, it is essential to have a detailed understanding of the mechanism of formation of these toxicants in processed foods. All reviewed toxicants in that paper are classified as probable, possible or potential human carcinogens and have been proven to be carcinogenic in animal studies. The purpose of that review is to summarize some of the most frequent occurring heat-generated food toxicants during conventional heating, their metabolism and carcinogenicity. Moreover, conventional and microwave heating were also compared as two different heat treatment methods, especially how they change food chemical composition and which thermal food toxicants are formed during specific method.

Papel da interação entre bactérias láticas isoladas de alimentos na produção de bacteriocinas / Role of interactions among lactic acid bacteria isolated from foods on production of bacteriocins

Bacteriocinas produzidas por bactérias láticas (BAL) apresentam um importante potencial de aplicação na bioconservação de alimentos, por sua ação antimicrobiana contra algumas espécies de microrganismos patogênicos de relevância, como Listeria monocytogenes. Este estudo analisou o efeito da interação entre cepas selecionadas de BAL produtoras de bacteriocinas com outras BAL viáveis ou não viáveis (bacteriocinogênicas ou não) na indução da produção de bacteriocinas. O efeito dos metabólitos produzidos por estas cepas na indução da bacteriocinogênese também foi avaliado. As cepas produtoras de bacteriocinas selecionadas para o estudo foram Lactobacillus sakei MBSa1, produtora de sakacina A e Pediococcus acidilactici ET34, produtora de pediocina, isoladas de salame e salmão defumado, respectivamente. A produção de pediocina por P. acidilactici ET34 foi avaliada também em leite em pó desnatado reconstituído, além de meio de cultura (caldo MRS). Os resultados indicaram que, quando em co-cultura com Enterococcus faecalis ATCC12755, Lactobacillus sakei ATCC15521 ou Listeria monocytogenes (cepas 104, 711 e 637), ou na presença do sobrenadante livre de células (SLC) dessas culturas, nenhuma das duas cepas testadas produziu maior quantidade de bacteriocina do que a produzida quando em monocultura ou na ausência do SLC. A bacteriocina produzida por P. acidilactici ET34 apresentou um efeito bacteriostático contra L. monocytogenes 104 no leite em pó desnatado reconstituído nas 12 h analisadas, com extensão da fase lag, de forma dose-dependente. Os resultados indicaram, também, que P. acidilactici ET34 não foi capaz de produzir pediocina no leite em pó desnatado reconstituído quando em monocultura ou em co-cultura, ao contrário do observado para o caldo MRS. Mais investigação é necessária para esclarecer os efeitos de possíveis interações entre as BAL presentes em um alimento, bem como o efeito dos componentes dos alimentos na produção das bacteriocinas pelas BAL bacteriocinogênicas

Bacteriocins produced by lactic acid bacteria (LAB) present an important application potential in food biopreservation, by their antimicrobial activity against some species of pathogenic microorganisms of relevance, such as Listeria monocytogenes. This study analyzed the effect of the interaction between selected strains of bacteriocin-producing LAB with other viable or non-viable LAB (bacteriocinogenic or not) in the induction of bacteriocin production. The effect of the metabolites produced by these strains on the induction of bacteriocinogenesis was also evaluated. The bacteriocin-producing strains selected for the study were Lactobacillus sakei MBSa1, producer of sakacin A and Pediococcus acidilactici ET34, producer of pediocin, isolated from salami and smoked salmon, respectively. The production of pediocin by P. acidilactici ET34 was also evaluated in reconstituted skimmed milk powder as well as culture medium (MRS broth). The results indicated that when co-cultivated with Enterococcus faecalis ATCC12755, Lactobacillus sakei ATCC15521 or Listeria monocytogenes (strains 104, 711 and 637), or in the presence of the cell free supernatant (SLC) of these cultures, neither of the two strains tested produced greater amount of bacteriocin than that produced in monoculture or in the absence of SLC. The bacteriocin produced by P. acidilactici ET34 presented a bacteriostatic effect against L. monocytogenes 104 in skimmed milk powder reconstituted in 12h, with extension of lag phase, in a dose-dependent manner. The results also indicated that P. acidilactici ET34 was not able to produce pediocin in the reconstituted skimmed milk powder when in monoculture or in co-culture, unlike that observed for the MRS broth. More research is needed to clarify the effects of possible interactions between BAL present in a food and the effect of food components on bacteriocin production by bacteriocinogenic BAL

Dose-dependent synergistic and antagonistic mutation responses of binary mixtures of the environmental carcinogen benzo[a]pyrene with food-derived carcinogens.

Cooking food at high temperatures produces genotoxic chemicals and there is concern about their impact on human health. DNA damage caused by individual chemicals has been investigated but few studies have examined the consequences of exposure to mixtures as found in food. The current study examined the mutagenic response to binary mixtures of benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) with glycidamide (GA), BaP with acrylamide (AC), or 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) with GA at human-relevant concentrations (sub-nM). The metabolically competent human MCL-5 cells were exposed to these chemicals individually or in mixtures and mutagenicity was assessed at the thymidine kinase (TK) locus. Mixture exposures gave dose-responses that differed from those for the individual chemicals; for the BaP-containing mixtures, an increased mutation frequency (MF) at low concentration combinations that were not mutagenic individually, and decreased MF at higher concentration combinations, compared to the calculated predicted additive MF of the individual chemicals. In contrast, the mixture of PhIP with GA did not increase MF above background levels. These data suggest BaP is driving the mutation response and that metabolic activation plays a role; in mixtures with BaP the increased/decreased MF above/below the expected additive MF the order is PhIP > AC > GA. The increase in MF at some low concentration combinations that include BaP is interesting and supports our previous work showing a similar response for BaP with PhIP, confirming this response is not limited to the BaP/PhIP combination. Moreover, the lack of a mutation response for PhIP with GA relative to the response of the individual chemicals at equivalent doses is interesting and may represent a potential avenue for reducing the risk of exposure to environmental carcinogens; specifically, removal of BaP from the mixture may reduce the mutation effect, although in the context of food this would be significantly challenging.

The role of cholesterol oxidation products in food toxicity.

Food consumption can lead to the accumulation of certain chemical compounds able to exert toxic activities against humans. Of mayor interests are those molecules generated during food processing and handling, since their occurrence and distribution depend of many intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Cholesterol - a lipid constituent of mammalian cells - is the precursor of several toxic molecules known as cholesterol oxidation products (COPs). In the last decades, it has been demonstrated that food processing can dramatically trigger COPs accumulation in meats, eggs, dairy products, fish and poultry. On the other hand, countless scientific evidences have pointed out the highly toxic and pathogenic activities of COPs, from cancer stimulation to neurodegenerative disorders, via molecular mechanisms that are largely unexplored. The aim of this review is to merge the evidence on COPs accumulation in foods and their toxic activities through dietary intake, as from in vivo and in vitro studies. We consider that it is imperative to systematically monitor the formation of COPs to bridge these quantitative efforts with a risk exposure assessment on sensitive populations.

Self-reported adverse reactions associated with mycoprotein (Quorn-brand) containing foods.

BACKGROUND: Mycoprotein, which is produced by a mold and is the basis of Quorn-brand meat substitutes, is a novel cause of allergic and gastrointestinal reactions, but little information has been available on its associated symptomatology. OBJECTIVE: To describe the nature and frequency of adverse reactions to mycoprotein. METHODS: Self-reports of adverse reactions to mycoprotein were collected via a Web-based questionnaire (www.quorncomplaints.org) and then analyzed. RESULTS: Analysis of 1,752 adverse reactions found that Quorn products caused allergic and gastrointestinal symptoms, with some people experiencing both. Allergic reactions, including urticaria and anaphylaxis, occurred within 4 hours of consumption in 312 people. Of those reactions, 45.8%, 1 fatal, began within 1 hour of exposure. Of those 312 individuals, 188 (60.3%) reported repeated reactions after repeated consumption of Quorn, and 2 people experienced 8 reactions (13 people did not say whether they experienced more than 1 reaction). Quorn foods caused gastrointestinal symptoms, including emesis and diarrhea, within 8 hours of consumption in 1,692 people. Of the gastrointestinal symptoms, 66.6% occurred 46 to 180 minutes after consumption of the products. Symptoms ranged from mild nausea to emesis severe enough to warrant medical attention. CONCLUSION: Mycoprotein may be causing numerous and sometimes life-threatening allergic and gastrointestinal reactions. The acceptance in the food supply of this nonessential ingredient deserves reconsideration.

Detección de residuos de quinolonas en carne bovina de venta en mercados municipales de la ciudad de Guatemala / Quinolone antibiotic residues in beef meat sold in municipal markets of Guatemala City

La resistencia bacteriana es una amenaza creciente para la salud pública mundial. El mal uso y uso excesivo de antimicrobianos en personas y animales está acelerando este proceso. En el caso de residuos antimicrobianos en productos de origen animal, se sabe que producen reacciones alérgicas, así como inducción de resistencia en bacterias transmitidas por alimentos como Salmonella, Campylobacter y Escherichia coli. Este estudio tuvo como objetivo detectar la presencia de residuos de quinolonas en carne bovina de venta en mercados municipales de la ciudad de Guatemala. Se obtuvieron 161 muestras para análisis. La detección de quinolonas se realizó por metodología de Inmunoensayo Asociado a Enzima (Elisa). Siete de 161 (5%) contenían residuos de quinolonas. Los niveles medios (desviación estándar) detectados fueron 16.497(1.69) µg/kg; ningún límite fue superior al límite máximo residual permitido (100 µg/kg). Este estudio indicó que existen residuos de antibiótico en algunas carnes de res en Guatemala.

Antimicrobial resistance is an increasingly serious threat to global public health. The misuse and overuse of antimicrobials in people and animals is an accelerating factor for this process. In the case of antimicrobial residues in animal origin products, it is known that they cause allergic reactions as well as induction of resistance in bacteria such as Salmonella, Campylobacter and Escherichia coli. This study aimed to find the presence of quinolones residues in beef meat. A total of 161 samples were collected from municipal markets in Guatemala City for analysis. Extraction and determination of quinolones was performed by Enzyme­linked Immunoassay (Elisa) methodology. Seven of 161 (5%) contained quinolone residues. The mean levels (±SE) of quinolones were 16.497(1.69) µg/kg; no limit was superior than the maximum residual limit allowed (100 µg/kg) by FDA. Even though none of the samples exceeded the upper limit it is important that some residues of quinolone were found.