A Comparative Study of the Antiemetic Effects of α2-Adrenergic Receptor Agonists Clonidine and Dexmedetomidine against Diverse Emetogens in the Least Shrew (Cryptotis parva) Model of Emesis.

In contrast to cats and dogs, here we report that the α2-adrenergic receptor antagonist yohimbine is emetic and corresponding agonists clonidine and dexmedetomidine behave as antiemetics in the least shrew model of vomiting. Yohimbine (0, 0.5, 0.75, 1, 1.5, 2, and 3 mg/kg, i.p.) caused vomiting in shrews in a bell-shaped and dose-dependent manner, with a maximum frequency (0.85 ± 0.22) at 1 mg/kg, which was accompanied by a key central contribution as indicated by increased expression of c-fos, serotonin and substance P release in the shrew brainstem emetic nuclei. Our comparative study in shrews demonstrates that clonidine (0, 0.1, 1, 5, and 10 mg/kg, i.p.) and dexmedetomidine (0, 0.01, 0.05, and 0.1 mg/kg, i.p.) not only suppress yohimbine (1 mg/kg, i.p.)-evoked vomiting in a dose-dependent manner, but also display broad-spectrum antiemetic effects against diverse well-known emetogens, including 2-Methyl-5-HT, GR73632, McN-A-343, quinpirole, FPL64176, SR141716A, thapsigargin, rolipram, and ZD7288. The antiemetic inhibitory ID50 values of dexmedetomidine against the evoked emetogens are much lower than those of clonidine. At its antiemetic doses, clonidine decreased shrews' locomotor activity parameters (distance moved and rearing), whereas dexmedetomidine did not do so. The results suggest that dexmedetomidine represents a better candidate for antiemetic potential with advantages over clonidine.

Dexmedetomidine attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced renal cell fibrotic phenotypic changes by inhibiting necroinflammation via activating α2-adrenoceptor: A combined randomised animal and in vitro study.

BACKGROUND: Acute kidney injury (AKI) was reported to be one of the initiators of chronic kidney disease (CKD) development. Necroinflammation may contribute to the progression from AKI to CKD. Dexmedetomidine (Dex), a highly selective α2-adrenoreceptor (AR) agonist, has cytoprotective and "anti-" inflammation effects. This study was designed to investigate the anti-fibrotic properties of Dex in sepsis models. METHODS: C57BL/6 mice were randomly treated with an i.p. injection of lipopolysaccharides (LPS) (10 mg/kg) alone, LPS with Dex (25 µg/kg), or LPS, Dex and Atipamezole (Atip, an α2-adrenoreceptor antagonist) (500 µg/kg) (n=5/group). Human proximal tubular epithelial cells (HK2) were also cultured and then exposed to LPS (1 µg/ml) alone, LPS and Dex (1 µM), transforming growth factor-beta 1 (TGF-ß1) (5 ng/ml) alone, TGF-ß1 and Dex, with or without Atip (100 µM) in culture media. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), cell necrosis, necroptosis and pyroptosis, and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) phosphorylation were then determined. RESULTS: Dex treatment significantly alleviated LPS-induced AKI, myofibroblast activation, NLRP3 inflammasome activation, and necroptosis in mice. Atip counteracted its protective effects. Dex attenuated LPS or TGF-ß1 induced EMT and also prevented necrosis, necroptosis, and pyroptosis in response to LPS stimulation in the HK2 cells. The anti-EMT effects of Dex were associated with JNK phosphorylation. CONCLUSIONS: Dex reduced EMT following LPS stimulation whilst simultaneously inhibiting pyroptosis and necroptosis via α2-AR activation in the renal tubular cells. The "anti-fibrotic" and cytoprotective properties and its clinical use of Dex need to be further studied.

Tumour immune rejection triggered by activation of α2-adrenergic receptors.

Immunotherapy based on immunecheckpoint blockade (ICB) using antibodies induces rejection of tumours and brings clinical benefit in patients with various cancer types1. However, tumours often resist immune rejection. Ongoing efforts trying to increase tumour response rates are based on combinations of ICB with compounds that aim to reduce immunosuppression in the tumour microenvironment but usually have little effect when used as monotherapies2,3. Here we show that agonists of α2-adrenergic receptors (α2-AR) have very strong anti-tumour activity when used as monotherapies in multiple immunocompetent tumour models, including ICB-resistant models, but not in immunodeficient models. We also observed marked effects in human tumour xenografts implanted in mice reconstituted with human lymphocytes. The anti-tumour effects of α2-AR agonists were reverted by α2-AR antagonists, and were absent in Adra2a-knockout (encoding α2a-AR) mice, demonstrating on-target action exerted on host cells, not tumour cells. Tumours from treated mice contained increased infiltrating T lymphocytes and reduced myeloid suppressor cells, which were more apoptotic. Single-cell RNA-sequencing analysis revealed upregulation of innate and adaptive immune response pathways in macrophages and T cells. To exert their anti-tumour effects, α2-AR agonists required CD4+ T lymphocytes, CD8+ T lymphocytes and macrophages. Reconstitution studies in Adra2a-knockout mice indicated that the agonists acted directly on macrophages, increasing their ability to stimulate T lymphocytes. Our results indicate that α2-AR agonists, some of which are available clinically, could substantially improve the clinical efficacy of cancer immunotherapy.

Alpha-2A but not 2B/C noradrenergic receptors in ventral tegmental area regulate phasic dopamine release in nucleus accumbens core.

Adrenergic receptors (AR) in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) modulate local neuronal activity and, as a consequence, dopamine (DA) release in the mesolimbic forebrain. Such modulation has functional significance: intra-VTA blockade of α1-AR attenuates behavioral responses to salient environmental stimuli in rat models of drug seeking and conditioned fear as well as phasic DA release in the nucleus accumbens (NAc). In contrast, α2-AR in the VTA has been suggested to act primarily as autoreceptors, limiting local noradrenergic input. The regulation of noradrenaline efflux by α2-AR could be of clinical interest, as α2-AR agonists are proposed as promising pharmacological tools in the treatment of PTSD and substance use disorder. Thus, the aim of our study was to determine the subtype-specificity of α2-ARs in the VTA capable of modulating phasic DA release. We used fast scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV) in anaesthetized male rats to measure DA release in the NAc after combined electrical stimulation and infusion of selected α2-AR antagonists into the VTA. Intra-VTA microinfusion of idazoxan - a non-subtype-specific α2-AR antagonist, as well as BRL-44408 - a selective α2A-AR antagonist, attenuated electrically-evoked DA in the NAc. In contrast, local administration of JP-1302 or imiloxan (α2B- and α2C-AR antagonists, respectively) had no effect. The effect of BRL-44408 on DA release was attenuated by intra-VTA DA D2 antagonist (raclopride) pre-administration. Finally, we confirmed the presence of α2A-AR protein in the VTA using western blotting. In conclusion, these data specify α2A-, but not α2B- or α2C-AR as the receptor subtype controlling NA release in the VTA.

Alpha-2 Adrenoreceptor Antagonist Yohimbine Potentiates Consolidation of Conditioned Fear.

BACKGROUND: Hyperconsolidation of aversive associations and poor extinction learning have been hypothesized to be crucial in the acquisition of pathological fear. Previous animal and human research points to the potential role of the catecholaminergic system, particularly noradrenaline and dopamine, in acquiring emotional memories. Here, we investigated in a between-participants design with 3 groups whether the noradrenergic alpha-2 adrenoreceptor antagonist yohimbine and the dopaminergic D2-receptor antagonist sulpiride modulate long-term fear conditioning and extinction in humans. METHODS: Fifty-five healthy male students were recruited. The final sample consisted of n = 51 participants who were explicitly aware of the contingencies between conditioned stimuli (CS) and unconditioned stimuli after fear acquisition. The participants were then randomly assigned to 1 of the 3 groups and received either yohimbine (10 mg, n = 17), sulpiride (200 mg, n = 16), or placebo (n = 18) between fear acquisition and extinction. Recall of conditioned (non-extinguished CS+ vs CS-) and extinguished fear (extinguished CS+ vs CS-) was assessed 1 day later, and a 64-channel electroencephalogram was recorded. RESULTS: The yohimbine group showed increased salivary alpha-amylase activity, confirming a successful manipulation of central noradrenergic release. Elevated fear-conditioned bradycardia and larger differential amplitudes of the N170 and late positive potential components in the event-related brain potential indicated that yohimbine treatment (compared with a placebo and sulpiride) enhanced fear recall during day 2. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that yohimbine potentiates cardiac and central electrophysiological signatures of fear memory consolidation. They thereby elucidate the key role of noradrenaline in strengthening the consolidation of conditioned fear associations, which may be a key mechanism in the etiology of fear-related disorders.

Yohimbine as a pharmacological probe for alcohol research: a systematic review of rodent and human studies.

Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is a significant public health concern, contributing to a myriad of social, psychological, and physiological issues. Despite substantial efforts within the alcohol research field, promising preclinical findings have failed to translate to clinical use, highlighting the necessity to develop safe and effective pharmacological probes with the ability to be used in preclinical and clinical research. Yohimbine, an α2 adrenergic receptor antagonist, is a well-validated pharmacological tool that has been widely employed in alcohol studies to evaluate noradrenergic activation. This scoping systematic review examines published literature in rodent and human studies involving the use of yohimbine relevant to alcohol research. We conducted a systematic literature review of MEDLINE, Embase, Web of Science Core Collection, CINAHL, PsycInfo, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials to identify: (1) Experimental Characteristics and Methodology, (2) Sex Differences, (3) Neurochemical Systems and Brain Regions, and (4) Discussion of Applications for Medication Development. Sixty-seven (62 preclinical and 5 clinical) studies were identified meeting the stated criteria, comprising extensive evidence supporting the use of yohimbine as a safe, titratable pharmacological agent for translational alcohol research. Support for the use of yohimbine as a fully translational tool, however, is hindered by limited available findings from human laboratory studies, as well as a dearth of studies examining sex differences in yohimbine's mechanistic actions. Additional consideration should be given to further translational modeling, ideally allowing for parallel preclinical and clinical assessment of yohimbine, methodological assessment of neurochemical systems and brain regions.

Effect of dexmedetomidine on cardiorespiratory regulation in spontaneously breathing adult rats.

PURPOSE: We examined the cardiorespiratory effect of dexmedetomidine, an α2- adrenoceptor/imidazoline 1 (I1) receptor agonist, in spontaneously breathing adult rats. METHODS: Male rats (226-301 g, n = 49) under isoflurane anesthesia had their tail vein cannulated for drug administration and their tail artery cannulated for analysis of mean arterial pressure (MAP), pulse rate (PR), and arterial blood gases (PaO2, PaCO2, pH). After recovery, one set of rats received normal saline for control recording and was then divided into three experimental groups, two receiving dexmedetomidine (5 or 50 µg·kg-1) and one receiving normal saline (n = 7 per group). Another set of rats was divided into four groups receiving dexmedetomidine (50 µg·kg-1) followed 5 min later by 0.5 or 1 mg∙kg-1 atipamezole (selective α2-adrenoceptor antagonist) or efaroxan (α2-adrenoceptor/I1 receptor antagonist) (n = 6 or 8 per group). Recordings were performed 15 min after normal saline or dexmedetomidine administration. RESULTS: Compared with normal saline, dexmedetomidine (5 and 50 µg·kg-1) decreased respiratory frequency (fR, p = 0.04 and < 0.01, respectively), PR (both p < 0.01), and PaO2 (p = 0.04 and < 0.01), and increased tidal volume (both p = 0.049). Dexmedetomidine at 5 µg·kg-1 did not significantly change minute ventilation (V'E) (p = 0.87) or MAP (p = 0.24), whereas dexmedetomidine at 50 µg·kg-1 significantly decreased V'E (p = 0.03) and increased MAP (p < 0.01). Only dexmedetomidine at 50 µg·kg-1 increased PaCO2 (p < 0.01). Dexmedetomidine (5 and 50 µg·kg-1) significantly increased blood glucose (p < 0.01), and dexmedetomidine at 50 µg·kg-1 increased hemoglobin (p = 0.04). Supplemental atipamezole or efaroxan administration similarly prevented the 50 µg·kg-1 dexmedetomidine-related cardiorespiratory changes. PRINCIPAL CONCLUSION: These results suggest that dexmedetomidine-related hypoventilation and hypertension are observed simultaneously and occur predominantly through activation of α2-adrenoceptors, but not I1 receptors, in spontaneously breathing adult rats.

Effect of sympathetic sprouting on the excitability of dorsal root ganglion neurons and afferents in a rat model of neuropathic pain.

Increased sympathetic nerve excitability has been reported to aggravate a variety of chronic pain conditions, and an increase in the number of sympathetic nerve fibers in the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) has been found in neuropathic pain (NP) models. However, the mechanism of the neurotransmitter norepinephrine (NE) released by sympathetic nerve fiber endings on the excitability of DRG neurons is still controversial, and the adrenergic receptor subtypes involved in this biological process are also controversial. In our study, we have two objectives: (1) To determine the effect of the neurotransmitter NE on the excitability of different neurons in DRG; (2) To determine which adrenergic receptors are involved in the excitability of DRG neurons by NE released by sprouting sympathetic fibers. In this experiment, a unique field potential recording method of spinal cord dorsal horn was innovatively adopted, which can be used for electrophysiological study in vivo. The results showed that： Forty days after SNI, patch clamp and field potential recording methods confirmed that NE enhanced the excitability of ipsilateral DRG large neurons, and then our in vivo electrophysiological results showed that the α2 receptor blocker Yohimbine could block the excitatory effect of NE on A-fiber and the inhibitory effect on C-fiber, while the α2A-adrenergic receptor agonist guanfacine (100 µM) had the same biological effect as NE. Finally, we concluded that NE from sympathetic fiber endings is involved in the regulation of pain signaling by acting on α2A-adrenergic receptors in DRG.

Interaction between α1B - and other α1 - and α2 -adrenoceptors in producing contractions of mouse spleen.

We have investigated the interaction of α1 - and α2 -adrenoceptor subtypes in producing isometric contractions to NA in mouse whole spleen. The α1 -adrenoceptor antagonist prazosin (10-8  M) or the α2 -adrenoceptor antagonist yohimbine (10-6  M) alone produced only small shifts in NA potency in wild type (WT) mice, but the combination produced a large shift in NA potency. In spleen from α1A/D -KO mice, the effects of prazosin and the combination of prazosin and yohimbine were similar to their effects in WT mice. Hence, in α1A/D -KO mice, in which the only α1 -adrenoceptor present is the α1B -adrenoceptor, prazosin still antagonized contractions to NA. The α1A -adrenoceptor antagonist RS100329 (3 × 10-9 M) produced significant shifts in the effects of higher concentrations of NA (EC50 and EC75 levels) and the α1D -adrenoceptor antagonist BMY7378 (3 × 10-8 M) produced significant shifts in the effects of lower concentrations of NA (EC25 and EC50 levels). The effects of BMY7378 and RS00329 demonstrate α1D -adrenoceptor and α1A -adrenoceptor components and suggest that the α1B -adrenoceptor interacts with an α1D -adrenoceptor, and to a lesser extent an α1A -adrenoceptor, at low, and an α1A -adrenoceptor at high, NA concentrations. This study demonstrates the complex interaction between α1 - and α2 -adrenoceptor subtypes in producing contractions of mouse spleen and may have general implications for α-adrenoceptor mediated control of smooth muscle.

Design, Sustainable Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of a Novel Dual α2A/5-HT7 Receptor Antagonist with Antidepressant-Like Properties.

The complex pathophysiology of depression, together with the limits of currently available antidepressants, has resulted in the continuous quest for alternative therapeutic strategies. Numerous findings suggest that pharmacological blockade of α2-adrenoceptor might be beneficial for the treatment of depressive symptoms by increasing both norepinephrine and serotonin levels in certain brain areas. Moreover, the antidepressant properties of 5-HT7 receptor antagonists have been widely demonstrated in a large set of animal models. Considering the potential therapeutic advantages in targeting both α2-adrenoceptors and 5-HT7 receptors, we designed a small series of arylsulfonamide derivatives of (dihydrobenzofuranoxy)ethyl piperidines as dually active ligands. Following green chemistry principles, the designed compounds were synthesized entirely using a sustainable mechanochemical approach. The identified compound 8 behaved as a potent α2A/5-HT7 receptor antagonist and displayed moderate-to-high selectivity over α1-adrenoceptor subtypes and selected serotonin and dopaminergic receptors. Finally, compound 8 improved performance of mice in the forced swim test, displaying similar potency to the reference drug mirtazapine.

Dexmedetomidine maintains blood-brain barrier integrity by inhibiting Drp1-related endothelial mitochondrial dysfunction in ischemic stroke.

Stroke is the second leading cause of death and long-term disability worldwide, which lacks effective treatment. Perioperative stroke is associated with much higher rates of mortality and disability. The neuroprotective role of dexmedetomidine (Dex), a highly selective agonist of alpha2-adrenergic receptor, has been reported in a stroke rat model, and it was found that pretreatment of Dex before stroke could alleviate blood-brain barrier (BBB) breakdown. However, the underlying mechanisms are still unknown. As the brain endothelial cells are the main constituents of BBB and in high demand of energy, mitochondrial function of endothelial cells plays an important role in the maintenance of BBB. Given that dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) is a protein mediating mitochondrial fission, with mitochondrial fusion that balances mitochondrial morphology and ensures mitochondria function, the present study was designed to investigate the possible role of Drp1 in endothelial cells involved in the neuroprotective effects of Dex in ischemic stroke. Our results showed that preconditioning with Dex reduced infarction volume, alleviated brain water content and BBB damage, and improved neurological scores in middle cerebral artery occlusion rats. Meanwhile, Dex enhanced cell activity and decreased cell apoptosis in oxygen-glucose deprivation human brain microvascular endothelial cells in vitro. These protective effects of Dex were correlated with the mitochondrial morphology integrality of endothelial cells, mediated by increased phosphorylation of serine 637 in Drp1, and could be reversed by α2-adrenergic receptor antagonist Yohimbine and AMP-activated protein kinase inhibitor Compound C. These findings suggest new molecular pathways involved in the neuroprotective effects of Dex in ischemic stroke. As Dex is routinely used as a sedative drug clinically, our findings provide molecular evidence that it has perioperative neuroprotection from ischemic stroke.

STANDING SEDATION WITH XYLAZINE AND REVERSAL WITH YOHIMBINE IN JUVENILE ASIAN ELEPHANTS (ELEPHAS MAXIMUS).

Evaluation and improvement of immobilization methods are important for wildlife welfare and biodiversity conservation. The sedative and physiological effects of xylazine (50-110 mg per elephant; 0.09-0.15 mg/kg IM) were evaluated in 15 juvenile Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in Sri Lanka. The time from xylazine injection until first sign of sedation, handling, and reversal with yohimbine (0.009-0.03 mg/kg IV) were recorded. Behavioral signs, level of sedation (no effect, light, moderate, or deep) and response to handling were assessed. Rectal temperature, pulse, and respiratory rates were recorded and arterial blood samples were analyzed 30 and 45 min after xylazine injection. The first sign of sedation occurred within 5-18 min. Standing sedation was induced in all elephants, but the level of sedation varied differently over time for each elephant. Twelve elephants remained standing throughout the sedation period, while 3 elephants became laterally recumbent. Sedative effects included lowered head and trunk, droopy ears, snoring, and penis protrusion. Pulse rate, respiratory rate, and rectal temperature ranged between 30-45 beats/min, 4-12 breaths/min, and 35.6-37.2°C, respectively, at 30 min after xylazine injection, and there were no changes over time. Pulmonary function and acid-base balance were adequate (range partial pressures of arterial oxygen 73-123 mmHg and carbon dioxide 33-52 mmHg, arterial hemoglobin oxygen saturation 96-99%, pH 7.34-7.54, lactate 0.9-2.5 mmol/L). Yohimbine was administered 46-110 min after the injection of xylazine, and the first sign of recovery occurred within 1-4 min. Resedation after reversal with yohimbine was observed in two elephants. In conclusion, xylazine at the doses used induced light to deep sedation with stable physiology and most elephants remained standing.

ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY AND DIRECT ARTERIAL BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT IN CAPTIVE CHIMPANZEES (PAN TROGLODYTES) DURING TWO PHASES OF AN ANESTHETIC PROTOCOL.

The effects of α-2 agonists on echocardiographic findings in great apes are not well documented, and knowledge of these effects would expand the understanding of cardiac examinations of chimpanzees under anesthesia with protocols using these drugs. Ten adult chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), four males and six females, underwent echocardiographic examinations after anesthesia with dexmedetomidine, midazolam, and ketamine (phase 1). Four animals required isoflurane to achieve an adequate plane of anesthesia. Atipamezole was used to antagonize dexmedetomidine, and all remaining animals were placed on isoflurane (phase 2), and then a second echocardiogram was performed. Direct arterial blood pressure was monitored during the anesthetic event. Measurements and recordings were assessed for statistically significant differences between the two phases and sex. There were no significant differences between phases or sex for any two-dimensional echocardiographic measurement of systolic function, although interventricular septum thickness at end systole approached a significant decrease from phase 1 to phase 2 (P = 0.058) when sex was considered a between-subject factor. Left ventricular outflow tract (P = 0.017) and pulmonary artery (P = 0.028) velocities increased after reversal of the dexmedetomidine. Diastolic transmitral flow was consistent with grade 3 diastolic dysfunction (median early to late ventricular filling velocities (E/A) of 2.02, interquartile range [IQR], 1.53-2.13) with a nonsignificant decrease of E velocity and increase in A velocity and decreased E/A after reversal. Trace mitral and tricuspid regurgitation were common findings in the sample population. Arterial blood pressure significantly decreased between phase 1 and phase 2 (P < 0.01). All chimpanzees entered a hypotensive state (mean arterial pressure < 60 mm Hg) during phase 2. Although limited by the small number of chimpanzees, this study showed an increase in afterload, potential diastolic dysfunction, and a decrease in blood pressure after the antagonism of dexmedetomidine. Additional studies to further assess the effects of α-2 agonists in chimpanzees are warranted.

Disentanglement of Cape fur seals (Arctocephalus pusillus pusillus) with reversible medetomidine-midazolam-butorphanol.

Anaesthesia in pinnipeds is considered a much higher risk than in most terrestrial mammals because of their frequent proximity to water and physiological and anatomical adaptations related to diving, which also influence their anaesthesia management. Anaesthetising and immobilising entangled seals does not allow for selection of animals that are at a safe distance from the water's edge. Medetomidine-midazolam-butorphanol (MMB) sedation was trialled on eight entangled Cape fur seals (CFS) (Arctocephalus pusillus pusillus) to determine if it was safe to use on animals that entered the water post-darting. The MMB was given at an estimated dose of 0.03 mg/kg, 0.2 mg/kg and 0.2 mg/kg, respectively, via remote darting. Sedation was reversed with intramuscular atipamezole (0.15 mg/kg) and naltrexone (0.4 mg/kg) to antagonise the effects of medetomidine and butorphanol, respectively. Moderate sedation was achieved in six animals. Six of the animals entered the water after being darted. There was a single mortality and a single animal that was too lightly sedated for capture. The preliminary results indicate that MMB produces suitable sedation for disentanglement of CFS. Additionally, MMB might be suitable for application to field-based biological research.

Effects of hydrocortisone and yohimbine on selective attention to emotional cues.

INTRODUCTION: Facial expressions contain important affective information, and selective attention to facial expression provides an advantage in the face of loss, stress and danger. In addition, the sympathetic nervous system and hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis mediate the organism's response to loss and danger. Here, we aimed at investigating the influence of sympathetic nervous system and hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis activation on selective attention to affective facial stimuli. METHODS AND MATERIALS: One hundred-and-four healthy men between 18-35 years old (mean (standard deviation) age: 24.1 (3.5) years) participated in the study. We used a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled design. Participants received either: (a) yohimbine, (b) hydrocortisone, (c) yohimbine and hydrocortisone or (d) placebo only and participated in a dot-probe task with sad, happy and neutral faces. We collected salivary samples to measure cortisol and alpha amylase activity in addition to measurements of blood pressure and heart rate. Salivary cortisol served as correlate of hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis activation and salivary alpha amylase activity, blood pressure and heart rate as correlates of sympathetic nervous system activation. Measurements were carried out before and after drug administration. RESULTS: We did not find a main effect or interaction effect of hydrocortisone or yohimbine administration on selective attention to happy faces. However, we found an interaction of yohimbine and hydrocortisone on selective attention to sad faces. Post-hoc t-test revealed an attentional bias away from sad stimuli and towards neutral faces in the hydrocortisone-only group. DISCUSSION: Only hydrocortisone administration led to an attentional bias away from sad faces. Future studies should investigate these effects in major depression disorder, as this disorder is characterised by glucocorticoid resistance and increased processing of sad stimuli.

The effects of an alpha-2-adrenoceptor agonist, antagonist, and their combination on the blood insulin, glucose, and glucagon concentrations in insulin sensitive and dysregulated horses.

Alpha-2-adrenoceptor agonists are sedatives that can cause fluctuations in serum insulin and blood glucose (BG) concentrations in horses. The objectives of this study were to investigate the effects of detomidine and vatinoxan on BG, insulin, and glucagon concentrations in horses with and without insulin dysregulation (ID). In a blinded cross-over design, eight horses with ID and eight horses without ID were assigned to each of four treatments: detomidine (0.02 mg/kg; DET), vatinoxan (0.2 mg/kg; VAT), detomidine + vatinoxan (DET + VAT), and saline control (SAL). Blood samples were taken at 0, 1, 2, 4, 6, and 8 h. Change from baseline was used as the response in modelling, and the differences between treatments were evaluated with repeated measures analysis of covariance. P values ≤0.05 were considered significant. Comparing DET vs. SAL and DET vs. DET + VAT, insulin was higher at 2 h in the non-ID group and 2 and 4 h in the ID group. There was no difference in insulin between SAL and DET + VAT or VAT. Comparing DET vs. SAL, BG was higher at 1 and 2 h then was lower at 4 h in both ID and non-ID groups. At 1 h in both groups, BG after DET + VAT was lower than after DET but higher than after SAL. Comparing DET vs. SAL, glucagon was lower at 1 h in the ID group and 1 and 2 h in the non-ID group. Vatinoxan was effective in preventing detomidine-induced hyperglycaemia as well as the subsequent insulin increase in horses with ID.

Hippocampal monoamine changes in the Flinders sensitive line rat: A case for the possible use of selective α2C-AR-antagonists in stress and anxiety disorders in companion animals.

Non-selective α2-adrenoreceptor (AR) stimulation delivers favourable sedative, analgesic, muscle relaxant and anxiolytic actions in companion animals, but is associated with cardiovascular and respiratory side effects. Anxiety conditions underscore monoamine disturbances amenable to α2-AR modulation. We investigated sub-chronic (14 day s.c.) treatment with the selective α2C-AR antagonist, ORM-10921 (0.03, 0.1, 0.3 mg/kg/d) on hippocampal noradrenaline (NA), dopamine (DA), serotonin (5-HT) and their turnover levels in stress sensitive Flinders Sensitive Line (FSL) rats versus Flinders Resistant Line (FRL) controls, using high performance liquid chromatography. The effects of ORM-10921 were compared to the non-selective α2-AR antagonist, idazoxan (IDAZ; 3 mg/kg/d), and to imipramine (IMI; 15 mg/kg/d), a reference antidepressant in this model. FSL rats displayed significantly reduced 5-HT (p = 0.03) and DA (p = 0.02) levels vs. FRL controls, while NA levels showed a similar trend. ORM-10921 significantly increased NA (all doses p ≤ 0.02), 5-HT (0.1 and 0.3 mg/kg p ≤ 0.03) and DA levels (all doses p ≤ 0.03), which correlated with decreased monoamine turnover. In contrast, IDAZ significantly elevated NA (p < 0.005) and DA (p < 0.004) but not 5-HT levels. IMI also significantly increased 5-HT (p < 0.009), with a tendency to increase NA (p = 0.09) but not DA. ORM-10921 exerts similar albeit broader effects on hippocampal monoamines than IDAZ, explaining earlier established efficacy associated with α2C-AR antagonism in animal models of depression and cognitive dysfunction. These and the current studies encourage application of ORM-10921 in depression in humans, as well as raise the intriguing possibility that selective α2C-AR antagonists may be beneficial in anxiety and stress-related disorders in companion animals. Both warrant further study.

CARDIORESPIRATORY EFFECTS OF DEXMEDETOMIDINE-MIDAZOLAM AND REVERSAL WITH ATIPAMEZOLE IN CAPTIVE BROWN BROCKET DEER (MAZAMA GOUAZOUBIRA).

Ketamine-free, midazolam-based protocols have successfully immobilized cervids in the past but their impact on physiological function has not yet been thoroughly investigated. Six deer received IM dexmedetomidine (30.96 ± 3.06 µg/kg) and midazolam (0.31 ± 0.03 mg/kg). Heart rates (HR), respiratory rates (f ), rectal temperature, mean arterial blood pressure (MAP), and oxygen saturation (SpO2) were recorded 25 min after drug delivery (T25) and every 5 min until T55. An arterial blood sample was collected at T40. Mean HR and temperature significantly decreased throughout sedation, but were maintained above critical values (> 60 beats/ min and 37°C, respectively). Although not statistically different, f clinically decreased during sedation. MAP remained within acceptable ranges (60-80 mmHg) and SpO2 above 95%. Mean PaO2 was normal (>80 mmHg), but a mild hypoxemia was observed on two occasions. Recovery was smooth yet prolonged, as the first head movement, attempt to stand, sternal recumbency, and standing position were recorded within 9.36 ± 3.47, 10.32 ± 1.37, 13.13 ± 2.70, and 15.34 ± 2.57 min after IM atipamezole, respectively. This protocol was effective for short-term procedures in captive brown brocket deer, and appeared to be safe on the basis of arterial blood gases and cardiorespiratory variables.

Yohimbine Ameliorates Temporomandibular Joint Chondrocyte Inflammation with Suppression of NF-κB Pathway.

Local joint inflammation plays an important role in the pathogenesis of temporomandibular joint (TMJ) osteoarthrosis (TMJOA). Yohimbine, an alpha-2 adrenergic receptor antagonist, possesses anti-inflammatory properties; however, the ability of Yohimbine to protect against TMJOA-associated chondrocyte inflammation remains unclear. We conducted in vitro and in vivo analyses to investigate whether Yohimbine could ameliorate TMJOA-induced chondrocyte inflammation and to elucidate the mechanisms involved. Chondrocytes of TMJOA mice were stimulated with interleukin (IL)-1ß or noradrenaline (NE), and the resulting production of inflammation-related factors was evaluated in the presence or absence of Yohimbine. Furthermore, two TMJOA mouse models were treated with Yohimbine and the therapeutic effect was quantified. NE (10-6 M) triggered inflammatory cytokine secretion by TMJ chondrocytes, and Yohimbine suppressed IL-1ß- or NE-induced IL-6 upregulation in TMJ chondrocytes with the nuclear factor (NF)-κB pathway inhibition. Yohimbine also ameliorated cartilage destruction in the TMJOA models. Interestingly, αmpT, a tyrosine hydroxylase inhibitor, reversed the effects of Yohimbine by activating the NF-κB pathway. Collectively, these findings show that Yohimbine ameliorated TMJ chondrocyte inflammation and the suppression of NF-κB pathway contributes to this effect.

Norepinephrine transporter antagonism prevents dopamine-dependent synaptic plasticity in the mouse dorsal hippocampus.

The rodent dorsal hippocampus is essential for episodic memory consolidation, a process heavily modulated by dopamine D1-like receptor (D1/5R) activation. It was previously thought that the ventral tegmental area provided the only supply of dopamine release to dorsal hippocampus, but several recent studies have established the locus coeruleus (LC) as the major source for CA1. Here we show that selective blockade of the norepinephrine transporter (NET) prevents dopamine-dependent, late long-term synaptic potentiation (LTP) in dorsal CA1, a neural correlate of memory formation that relies on LC-mediated activation of D1/5Rs. Since dopamine activation of D1/5Rs by vesicular release is expected to be enhanced by NET antagonism, our data identify NET reversal as a plausible mechanism for LC-mediated DA release. We also show that genetic deletion of LC NMDA receptors (NMDARs) blocks D1R-mediated LTP, suggesting the requirement of both a functional NET and presynaptic NMDARs for this release. As LC activity is highly correlated with attentional processes and memory, these experiments provide insight into how selective attention influences memory formation at the synaptic and circuit levels.