Efficient removal of acid orange 7 using a porous adsorbent-supported zero-valent iron as a synergistic catalyst in advanced oxidation process.

This study focuses on the synthesis of granular red mud reinforced by zero-valent iron (Fe@GRM) and its application for the removal acid orange 7 (AO7) from aqueous solution. Then ZVI is employed as a catalyst for the activation of persulfate (PS) to produce sulfate radicals (SO4•-) that are produced at 900 °C in an anoxic atmosphere using the direct reduction of iron oxide in the red mud with maize straw as the reductant. Furthermore, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) are used to illustrate the morphology and porous structure of the Fe@GRM. The X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) revealed that Fe@GRM was loaded with zero-valent iron. This characterization confirmed that the Fe@GRM was a porous structure material that contained zero-valent iron. The influence of conditions for AO7 elimination, including initial pH, Fe@GRM dosage, initial AO7 concentrations, and temperature, is also investigated. The removal efficiency of AO7 was 90.78% using Fe@GRM/PS, while only 18.15% was removed when Fe@GRM was used alone. The degradation kinetics were well fitted to a pseudo-first-order kinetic model, and the rate of removal increased with temperature, demonstrating an endothermic elimination process. The Arrhenius activation energy of the process was 20.77 kJ/mol, which indicated that the reduction of AO7 was a diffusion-mediated reaction. Fe@GRM is a low-cost material that demonstrated outstanding performance with great potential for wastewater treatment.

Amine functionalized sodium alginate hydrogel for efficient and rapid removal of methyl blue in water.

Herein, a potential hydrogel based on sodium alginate (SA) integrated with polyethyleneimine (PEI) was fabricated and employed for the elimination of methyl blue (MB) in aqueous media. The SA/PEI hydrogel demonstrated excellent removal performance for MB, i.e. ~99% of MB could be removed from water within ~30 min using 0.5 g/L SA/PEI hydrogel at 100 mg/L initial concentration. The SA/PEI hydrogel presented maximum adsorption capacity for MB as-high as 400.0 mg/g with the adsorption isotherm and kinetics abide with the Langmuir isotherm model and pseudo second-order kinetics, respectively. The adsorption process followed through chelation between the functionality of the hydrogel and MB as-confirmed by the X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analysis. After four consecutive adsorption/desorption cycles, the adsorption capacity of the SA/PEI hydrogel remained up to ~60% of its adsorption capacity in first cycle. Thus, being a cost-effective and eco-friendly material, the SA/PEI hydrogel can be a potential adsorbent in the decontamination of MB in wastewater.

Potential Use of Probiotic Consortium Isolated from Kefir for Textile Azo Dye Decolorization.

Azo dyes are recalcitrant pollutants, which are toxic, carcinogenic, mutagenic and teratogenic, that constitute a significant burden to the environment. The decolorization and the mineralization efficiency of Remazol Brillant Orange 3R (RBO 3R) was studied using a probiotic consortium (Lactobacillus acidophilus and Lactobacillus plantarum). Biodegradation of RBO 3R (750 ppm) was investigated under shaking condition in Mineral Salt Medium (MSM) solution at pH 11.5 and temperature 25°C. The bio-decolorization process was further confirmed by FTIR and UV-Vis analysis. Under optimal conditions, the bacterial consortium was able to decolorize the dye completely (>99%) within 12 h. The color removal was 99.37% at 750 ppm. Muliplex PCR technique was used to detect the Lactobacillus genes. Using phytotoxicity, cytotoxicity, mutagenicity and biototoxicity endpoints, toxicological studies of RBO 3R before and after biodegradation were examined. A toxicity assay signaled that biodegradation led to detoxification of RBO 3R dye.

Ultrafast and efficient removal of anionic dyes from wastewater by polyethyleneimine-modified silica nanoparticles.

Trace anionic dyes in wastewater are difficult to be rapidly and efficiently removed because they are completely soluble and poorly biodegradable. Herein, a facile and environmentally friendly adsorbent was fabricated via the surface functioned SiO2 with abundant amine groups of polyethyleneimine (PEI). The structural characterization indicated that PEI was successfully immobilized on the SiO2 surface. The adsorption performance of SiO2-PEI was evaluated using acid orange II (AOII) as model pollutant. The adsorption of AOII on SiO2-PEI displayed high removal rates in the pH range of 2.0-9.0, and exhibited ultrafast removal (99.1% removal rate at 10 min). The adsorption behavior fitted well with the Langmuir isotherm and pseudo-second-order kinetic model, and the maximum uptake capability of AOII was higher than 705.3 mg/g. The excellent adsorption capacity of AOII on SiO2-PEI mainly relied on the electrostatic attraction between the sulfonic acid group of AOII and amine group of PEI in the adsorption process. Additionally, other anionic dyes like acid fuchsin and direct sky blue 5B could also be fast and efficiently removed by SiO2-PEI. This work is expected to open new possibilities for the ultrafast removal of anionic dye pollutants.

Preliminary Studies of Synthetic Dye Adsorption on Iron Sludge and Activated Carbons.

There is great interest in the search for multifunctional waste-based materials that may be applied as environmentally friendly adsorbents. Iron-rich sludge from ground drinking-water treatment plants may be considered a potential adsorbent for various water contaminants. This material is generated during ground water purification because of the excess of metal ions in water (Fe, Mn). In practice, this sludge is frequently disposed of as waste material and, so far, is not commonly applied as the adsorption base. Our research aims to explore the adsorption potential of iron sludge for selected synthetic dyes, including malachite green, ponceau 4R, and brilliant blue FCF. Experimental data were performed using iron sludge collected from the Groundwater Treatment Plant in Koszalin, Poland, and comparing it with adsorption properties of commercial activated carbons (Norit SA Super and Norit CA 1). The kinetics, adsorption isotherms, and temperature influence on the removal of target dyes were investigated and discussed. Preliminary experimental data have revealed that iron sludge can be considered an adsorbent for the removal of cationic dyes.

Simultaneous adsorption of Cu2+ and Acid fuchsin (AF) from aqueous solutions by CMC/bentonite composite.

Carboxymethyl-chitosan (CMC)/bentonite composite was prepared by the method of membrane-forming, and characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques. The simultaneous adsorption of Cu2+ and Acid fuchsin (AF) applying CMC/bentonite composite as an adsorbent in single or binary systems was investigated. The adsorption study was conducted systematically by varying the ratio of CMC to bentonite, adsorbent dosage, initial pH value, initial Cu2+ (or AF) concentration, contact time and the interaction of two components in binary solutions. The results showed that the presence of Cu2+ hindered the adsorption of AF, while the presence of AF almost had no influence on the adsorption of Cu2+ in binary systems. The adsorption data of Cu2+ and AF were both suitable for Langmuir isotherm model, and the maximum adsorption capacities of CMC/bentonite composite, according to the Langmuir isotherm model were 81.4 mg/g for Cu2+ and 253.2 mg/g for AF at 298 K. The pseudo-second-order model could better describe the adsorption process of Cu2+ and AF. Thermodynamic constant values illustrated that the adsorption of Cu2+ was endothermic, while the adsorption process of AF was exothermic.

Kinetics of Acid Orange 7 oxidation by using carbon fiber and reticulated vitreous carbon in an electro-Fenton process.

In this study, a micro-scale parallel plate reactor was built to electrochemically generate hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and to develop the Fenton reaction in situ, for the treatment of toxic organic pollutants. Two types of carbon materials were compared and used as cathodes: unidirectional carbon fiber (CF) and reticulated vitreous carbon (RVC). As anode, a stainless steel mesh was used. The results of H2O2 were experimentally compared by means of electrogeneration process. RVC cathode with dimensions of 2.5 × 1 × 5 cm (170 mA and variable voltage V = 2.0-2.7) and 180 min produced 5.3 mM H2O2, with an H2O2 production efficiency of 54%. Unidirectional carbon fiber cathode produced 7.5 mM of H2O2 (96% of H2O2 production efficiency) when a voltage of 1.8 V was applied during 180 min to a total area of 480 cm2 of this material. Acid Orange 7 (AO7) was degraded to a concentration of 0.16 mM during the first 40 min of the process, which represented 95% of the initial concentration. Electrolysis process removed nearly 100% of the AO7 using both cathodes at the end of these experiments (180 min).

Nitrogen-enriched carbon sheet for Methyl blue dye adsorption.

In this work, nitrogen-enriched carbon sheet (NECS) was successfully fabricated by using sodium gluconate as a carbon source via melamine assisted chemical blowing approach. The obtained material exhibits sheet-like morphology with ultra-thin thickness and has a high specific surface area of 604 m2g-1 and high nitrogen contents of 11.2 wt%. The NECS showed an excellent adsorption performance towards the removal of anionic dye Methyl blue (a-Mb). The adsorption of a-Mb onto NECS better fitted the Langmuir isotherm model with the highest adsorption capacity of 847 mg g-1. Interestingly, the NECS showed a pH-sensitive behavior towards the adsorption efficiency of a-Mb dye in which the adsorption capacity abruptly increased from 34 to 701 mg g-1 when the pH of the solution was decreased from 10 to 2. Furthermore, the adsorbed materials can be easily regenerated without obvious efficiency loss over a five adsorption-desorption cycles.

Simultaneous removal of Cr(VI) and acid orange 7 from water solution by dielectric barrier discharge plasma.

A feasibility study was conducted for simultaneous removal of hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) and azo dye acid orange 7 (AO7) by the dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) plasma. The results showed that there was a synergistic effect between Cr(VI) reduction and AO7 degradation. The presence of Cr(VI) enhanced the degradation efficiency of AO7. Meanwhile, the removal efficiency of Cr(VI) also increased in the presence of AO7. Under acidic conditions (pH = 3.0), the reduction efficiency of Cr(VI) was higher (approximately 94%). However, the presence of Cr(VI) diminished the effect of pH on the AO7 degradation efficiency. By increasing the input voltage from 80 to 120 V, the removal efficiencies of Cr(VI) and AO7 were observably increased from 54% to 88% and 62% to 89%, respectively. Adding organic matters inhibited the degradation of AO7 and promoted the reduction of Cr(VI). The addition of Cu(II), Co(II), Ni(II), Mn(II) and Fe(III) could inhibit the Cr(VI) reduction, but not significantly affect the degradation of AO7. The degradation intermediates of AO7 were identified by LC-MS/MS system and a possible degradation pathway was proposed. This study showed that the DBD plasma can simultaneously remove Cr(VI) and AO7, which provided a new idea for the actual wastewater treatment.

Development and optimization of a novel sample preparation method cored on functionalized nanofibers mat-solid-phase extraction for the simultaneous efficient extraction of illegal anionic and cationic dyes in foods.

A simple and efficient three-step sample preparation method was developed and optimized for the simultaneous analysis of illegal anionic and cationic dyes (acid orange 7, metanil yellow, auramine-O, and chrysoidine) in food samples. A novel solid-phase extraction (SPE) procedure based on nanofibers mat (NFsM) was proposed after solvent extraction and freeze-salting out purification. The preferred SPE sorbent was selected from five functionalized NFsMs by orthogonal experimental design, and the optimization of SPE parameters was achieved through response surface methodology (RSM) based on the Box-Behnken design (BBD). Under the optimal conditions, the target analytes could be completely adsorbed by polypyrrole-functionalized polyacrylonitrile NFsM (PPy/PAN NFsM), and the eluent was directly analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection (HPLC-DAD). The limits of detection (LODs) were between 0.002 and 0.01 mg kg-1, and satisfactory linearity with correlation coefficients (R > 0.99) for each dye in all samples was achieved. Compared with the Chinese standard method and the published methods, the proposed method was simplified greatly with much lower requirement of sorbent (5.0 mg) and organic solvent (2.8 mL) and higher sample preparation speed (10 min/sample), while higher recovery (83.6-116.5%) and precision (RSDs < 7.1%) were obtained. With this developed method, we have successfully detected illegal ionic dyes in three common representative foods: yellow croaker, soybean products, and chili seasonings. Graphical abstract Schematic representation of the process of the three-step sample preparation.

Hydronium jarosite activation of peroxymonosulfate for the oxidation of organic contaminant in an electrochemical reactor driven by microbial fuel cell.

Electro-assisted Fenton-like (EAFL) system based on sulfate radicals (SO4-) has been extensively explored for the degradation of recalcitrant organic contaminant. Nevertheless, external power supply should be provided uninterruptedly in the EAFL process and thus the high energy consumption is ineluctable. Recently, microbial fuel cell (MFC), a bio-electrochemical system where exoelectricigens are used to catalyze fuels into electricity energy has gained popularity mainly due to its renewability. Herein, a novel heterogeneous EAFL system, hydronium jarosite (HJ) activation of peroxymonosulfate (PMS) in an electrochemical reactor driven by an uncoated single-chamber MFC (MFC/HJ/PMS), was employed to decolorize acid orange 7 (AO7). The results suggest that the MFC/HJ/PMS system can remove AO7 efficiently in a wide pH range (3-9). The concentration of total iron leached could meet European Union discharge standards and hydronium jarosite could be used at least three circles. The results of electron paramagnetic resonance analysis and radical scavenging experiments indicate SO4- is the major active species responsible for the AO7 elimination. The work provides an efficient, energy-saving and cost-effective approach to treat organic wastewater and develops the conceivable utilization of hydronium jarosite, precipitates produced in hydrometallurgical process.

Chitosan extraction from lobster shells and its grafted with functionalized MWCNT for simultaneous removal of Pb2+ ions and eriochrome cyanine R dye after their complexation.

Chitosan (CS) extracted from lobster shells (Persian Gulf, Iran), was grafted with amino functionalized multiwalled carbon nanotube (MWCNT). This novel material was characterized by FE-SEM and FT-IR and used for the ultrasound-assisted removal of Pb2+ ions and eriochrome cyanine R (ECR) dye. A central composite design (SCCD) under response surface methodology was used for studying the influences of important variables in removal process such as initial ECR and Pb2+ ions concentrations, adsorbent mass and sonication time on the removal efficiency. Linear, 2FI, quadratic and cubic models were performed and a quadratic model was selected for analysis of each response. ANOVA for the quadratic model shows the F-value parameter (820.44 and 537.12 for ECR and Pb2+ ions removal, respectively) and very low p-value (<0.0001), implying that the model was highly significant for understudy analytes adsorption. To achieve maximum removal, the optimum condition was determined and were set as:19.34 and 18.20mgL-1,0.018g and 9.35min for initial ECR and Pb2+ ion concentrations, adsorbent mass and sonication time, respectively. At these optimum conditions, 97.06% of ECR and 99.29% of Pb2+ ions were removed in a short time.

Catalytic performance of graphene-bimetallic composite for heterogeneous oxidation of acid orange 7 from aqueous solution.

In this study, reduced graphene oxide (rGO) embedded with bimetallic nanoparticles of cobalt-manganese oxide (CoMn2O4) was fabricated by hydrothermal treatment. The obtained product was characterized and applied for the heterogeneous activation of peroxymonosulfate (PMS) to degrade acid orange 7 (AO7). The characterization results revealed that 10-20 nm nanosized CoMn2O4 was homogenously decorated on the surface of rGO. The effect of different CoMn2O4 loadings showed that catalyst with a CoMn2O4 contents higher than 20% performs stronger capability for catalytic degradation of AO7 compared to pure CoMn2O4. In a system containing 4 mM PMS and 0.05 g/L 50% CoMn2O4/rGO, 100% conversion of AO7 (70 mg/L) and 43% mineralization could be achieved within 12 and 60 min, respectively. Recycling experiment along with XRD data demonstrates good stability of the catalyst for five successive runs. Inhibition confirmation results suggest that surface-bound SO4•- and HO• radicals both played a key role in degradation of AO7. Therefore, this material demonstrates a very efficient catalytic performance for the degradation of organic dyes.

Ultrasonic assisted dispersive solid-phase microextraction of Eriochrome Cyanine R from water sample on ultrasonically synthesized lead (II) dioxide nanoparticles loaded on activated carbon: Experimental design methodology.

The present research focus on designing an appropriate dispersive solid-phase microextraction (UA-DSPME) for preconcentration and determination of Eriochrome Cyanine R (ECR) in aqueous solutions with aid of sonication using lead (II) dioxide nanoparticles loaded on activated carbon (PbO-NPs-AC). This material was fully identified with XRD and SEM. Influence of pH, amounts of sorbent, type and volume of eluent, and sonication time on response properties were investigated and optimized by central composite design (CCD) combined with surface response methodology using STATISTICA. Among different solvents, dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) was selected as an efficient eluent, which its combination by present nanoparticles and application of ultrasound waves led to enhancement in mass transfer. The predicted maximum extraction (100%) under the optimum conditions of the process variables viz. pH 4.5, eluent 200µL, adsorbent dosage 2.5mg and 5min sonication was close to the experimental value (99.50%). at optimum conditions some experimental features like wide 5-2000ngmL-1 ECR, low detection limit (0.43ngmL-1, S/N=3:1) and good repeatability and reproducibility (relative standard deviation, <5.5%, n=12) indicate versatility in successful applicability of present method for real sample analysis. Investigation of accuracy by spiking known concentration of ECR over 200-600ngmL-1 gave mean recoveries from 94.850% to 101.42% under optimal conditions. The procedure was also applied for the pre-concentration and subsequent determination of ECR in tap and waste waters.

Noble metal-titania hybrid nanoparticle clusters and the interaction to proteins for photo-catalysis in aqueous environments.

We report a systematic study of the controlled synthesis of new hybrid spherical TiO2 nanoparticle cluster (TiO2-NPC) homogeneously decorated with noble metal nanoparticles (NPs) by gas-phase evaporation-induced self-assembly. Silver NP (AgNP) was used as the representative noble metal NP. The degradation of methyl blue (MB) in the aqueous solution was chosen as the representative system for the study of photocatalysis, which were tested and evaluated with respect to irradiation conditions and the presence of bovine serum albumin (BSA). The results show that particle size and chemical composition of the hybrid nanostructure were tunable by choosing the suitable concentration of precursors. The photocatalytic activity of AgNP-decorated TiO2-NPC was strongly affected by the light irradiation and the ligand-nanoparticle interfacial interaction. The presence of BSA influenced molecular conjugation to the surface of the hybrid nanostructure. Under conditions of simultaneous competitive adsorption of MB and BSA, the combination of AgNPs improved the photocatalytic activity of the TiO2-NPC-based catalysts. Our work describes a prototype methodology to fabricate TiO2-NPC homogeneously decorated with noble metal NPs with well-controlled material properties. The mechanistic understanding developed in this study can be useful for the future optimization of material properties of hybrid nanostructures versus interfacial interactions with the surrounding molecules.

[Determination of indigo and brilliant blue in different types of food products by high performance liquid chromatography with solid phase extraction].

OBJECTIVE: To develop and validate a solid phase extraction-high performance liquid chromatographic( SPE-HPLC) method for the simultaneous determination of indigo and brilliant blue in different types of food products. METHODS: The artificial colors in food products were extracted by acetonitrile / water and purified by WAX SPE cartridges, The separation was achieved using a Waters Symmetry C_(18)( 5 µm, 4. 6 mm × 250 mm) column and a binary gradient mobile phase of methanol and 0. 02 mol/L ammonium acetate solution, detected by HPLC-PDA. RESULTS: The validated analytical method showed that there was a good linearity in the range of 0. 05- 20. 00 µg/mL for both indigo and brilliant blue( r > 0. 999). The lowest detection limits of indigo and brilliant blue were 0. 04 and 0. 02 mg/kg, respectively. The average recoveries were among 81. 8%- 101. 1%, with relative standard deviation( RSD) of 2. 1%- 4. 9%( n =6) for both artificial colors. CONCLUSION: The method has high selectivity, high sensitivity, good recovery and reproducibility. It is suitable to simultaneously monitor indigo and brilliant blue in several types of food products based on the food classification system of GB 2760-2014.

Facile synthesis of magnetic biochar/Fe3O4 nanocomposites using electro-magnetization technique and its application on the removal of acid orange 7 from aqueous media.

This study introduces a new methodology to synthesize magnetic biochar/Fe3O4 nanocomposites (M-BC) from marine macroalgae using a facile electro-magnetization technique. M-BC was prepared by stainless steel electrode-based electrochemical system, followed by pyrolysis. Physical and chemical analyses revealed that the porosity and magnetic properties were simultaneously improved via the electro-magnetization process, which enabled not only higher adsorption performance, but also easier separation/recovery from aqueous media at post-adsorption stage using a bar magnet. The adsorption equilibrium studies reveal that the Sips model satisfactorily predicts the adsorption capacity, which found to be 190, 297, and 382mgg(-1) at 10, 20, and 30°C, respectively. The overall findings indicate that one-step electro-magnetization technique can be effectively utilized for the fabrication of biochar with concurrent acquisition of porosity and magnetism, which can bring about new directions in the practical use of adsorption process in environment remediation and mitigate crises originating from it.

Adsorption of Methyl Blue on Mesoporous Materials Using Rice Husk Ash as Silica Source.

It is recognized that recycling and reuse of waste can result in significant savings in materials and energy. In this research, the adsorption of methyl blue (MB) using waste rice husk ash (Rha) and mesoporous silica materials made from Rha (R-MCM) were analyzed. Mesoporous silica materials were synthesized using cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) as a cationic surfactant and Rha as the silica source. The prepared samples were characterized by Brunnaur-Emmet-Teller (BET) adsorption isotherm analyzer and transmission electron microscope (TEM) analysis. The results showed the surface area of R-MCM materials was 1347 m2g-1 and the pore volume was 0.906 cm3g-1. TEM analysis showed that the mesoporous materials generally exhibited ordered hexagonal arrays of mesopores with a uniform pore size. The effects on adsorption performance under different initial dye concentrations, different pH values and different dosages of adsorbent were also studied. Both Langmuir and Freundlich adsorption models were applied to describe the equilibrium isotherms. The results show that the maximum removal efficiency of MB more than 99%.

Linkage of iron elution and dissolved oxygen consumption with removal of organic pollutants by nanoscale zero-valent iron: Effects of pH on iron dissolution and formation of iron oxide/hydroxide layer.

The iron elution and dissolved oxygen (DO) consumption in organic pollutant removal by nanoscale zero-valent iron (nZVI) was examined in the range of solution pH from 3.0 to 9.0. Their behaviors were linked with the removal of organic pollutant through the dissolution of iron and the formation of iron oxide/hydroxide layer affected strongly by solution pH and DO. As an example of organic pollutants, azo-dye Orange II was chosen in this study. The chemical composition analyses before and after reaction confirmed the corrosion of nZVI into ions, the formation of iron oxide/hydroxide layer on nZVI surface and the adsorption of the pollutant and its intermediates. The complete decolorization of Orange II with nZVI was accomplished very quickly. On the other hand, the total organic carbon (TOC) removal was considerably slow and the maximum TOC removal was around 40% obtained at pH 9.0. The reductive cleavage of azo-bond by emitted electrons more readily took place as compared with the cleavage of aromatic rings of Orange II leading to the degradation to smaller molecules and subsequently the mineralization. A reaction kinetic model based on the Langmuir-Hinshelwood/Eley-Rideal approach was developed to elucidate mechanisms for organic pollutant removal controlled by the formation of iron oxide/hydroxide layer, the progress of which could be characterized by considering the dynamic concentration changes in Fe(2+) and DO. The dynamic profiles of Orange II removal linked with Fe(2+) and DO could be reasonably simulated in the range of pH from 3.0 to 9.0.

The mechanism for degrading Orange II based on adsorption and reduction by ion-based nanoparticles synthesized by grape leaf extract.

Biomolecules taken from plant extracts have often been used in the single-step synthesis of iron-based nanoparticles (Fe NPs) due to their low cost, environmental safety and sustainable properties. However, the composition of Fe NPs and the degradation mechanism of organic contaminants by them are limited because these are linked to the reactivity of Fe NPs. In this study, Fe NPs synthesized by grape leaf extract served to remove Orange II. Batch experiments showed that more than 92% of Orange II was removed by Fe NPs at high temperature based on adsorption and reduction and confirmed by kinetic studies. To understand the role of Fe NPs in the removal process of azo dye, surface analysis via X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were employed, showing that the Fe NPs were composed of biomolecules, hydrous iron oxides and Fe(0), thus providing evidence for the adsorption of Orange II onto hydrous iron oxides and its reduction by Fe(0). Degraded products such as 2-naphthol were identified using LC-MS analysis. A degradation mechanism based on asymmetrical azo bond cleavage for the removal of Orange II was proposed.