Siglec-7 is an indicator of natural killer cell function in acute myeloid leukemia.

Immune dysfunction is an established risk factor in acute myeloid leukemia (AML). The cytotoxicity of natural killer (NK) cells is greatly impaired in AML, and the profile of NK cell receptors is markedly altered in AML; however, this is not yet well characterized. In this study, we found the downregulation of Siglec-7 could be utilized as a potential marker of NK cell dysfunction in AML. The absolute numbers and percentages of NK cells were declined in the peripheral blood of patients with AML, and the levels of activating receptors NKG2D, NKp46, and NKp30 were reduced in NK cells from patients with AML compared with healthy controls. In contrast, the levels of inhibitory receptors TIM-3, ILT-4, ILT-5, and PD-1 were increased in NK cells from patients with AML. Of note, the level of Siglec-7 in NK cells from patients with AML was significantly lower than that in NK cells from healthy controls, and Siglec-7+ NK cells displayed higher levels of activating receptors and stronger cytotoxicity when compared with Siglec-7- NK cells. Our data indicate that decreased Siglec-7 level may predict NK cell dysfunction in AML, and NK cells may be promising targets of immunotherapy for AML.

A CD8+ NK cell transcriptomic signature associated with clinical outcome in relapsing remitting multiple sclerosis.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS) with the majority of cases characterised by relapsing/remitting (RRMS) attacks of neurologic dysfunction followed by variable resolution. Improving clinical outcomes in RRMS requires both a better understanding of the immunological mechanisms driving recurrent demyelination and better means of predicting future disease course to facilitate early targeted therapy. Here, we apply hypothesis-generating network transcriptomics to CD8+ cells isolated from patients in RRMS, identifying a signature reflecting expansion of a subset of CD8+ natural killer cells (NK8+) associated with favourable outcome. NK8+ are capable of regulating CD4+ T cell activation and proliferation in vitro, with reduced expression of HLA-G binding inhibitory receptors and consequent reduced sensitivity to HLA-G-mediated suppression. We identify surrogate markers of the NK8+ signature in peripheral blood leucocytes and validate their association with clinical outcome in an independent cohort, suggesting their measurement may facilitate early, targeted therapy in RRMS.

Novel insight from the first lung transplant of a COVID-19 patient.

BACKGROUND: To reveal detailed histopathological changes, virus distributions, immunologic properties and multi-omic features caused by SARS-CoV-2 in the explanted lungs from the world's first successful lung transplantation of a COVID-19 patient. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 36 samples were collected from the lungs. Histopathological features and virus distribution were observed by optical microscope and transmission electron microscope (TEM). Immune cells were detected by flow cytometry and immunohistochemistry. Transcriptome and proteome approaches were used to investigate main biological processes involved in COVID-19-associated pulmonary fibrosis. RESULTS: The histopathological changes of the lung tissues were characterized by extensive pulmonary interstitial fibrosis and haemorrhage. Viral particles were observed in the cytoplasm of macrophages. CD3+ CD4- T cells, neutrophils, NK cells, γ/δ T cells and monocytes, but not B cells, were abundant in the lungs. Higher levels of proinflammatory cytokines iNOS, IL-1ß and IL-6 were in the area of mild fibrosis. Multi-omics analyses revealed a total of 126 out of 20,356 significant different transcription and 114 out of 8,493 protein expression in lung samples with mild and severe fibrosis, most of which were related to fibrosis and inflammation. CONCLUSIONS: Our results provide novel insight that the significant neutrophil/ CD3+ CD4- T cell/ macrophage activation leads to cytokine storm and severe fibrosis in the lungs of COVID-19 patient and may contribute to a better understanding of COVID-19 pathogenesis.

Methodological Approaches to Assessing the Size and Morphology of Microvesicles of Cell Lines.

Morphological properties and the size of microvesicles were assessed using atomic force microscopy, electron microscopy, and granulometric analysis. As these methods require significant numbers of microvesicles, we chose microvesicles derived from cell lines for our research.

Fas Ligand localizes to intraluminal vesicles within NK cell cytolytic granules and is enriched at the immune synapse.

INTRODUCTION: T cell and NK cell cytotoxicity can be mediated via the perforin/granzyme system and Fas Ligand (FasL, CD178). FasL is synthesized as a type II transmembrane protein that binds its cognate receptor Fas (CD95). Membrane-bound FasL is expressed on the plasma membrane of activated lymphocytes and is the main form of FasL with cytotoxic activity, but whether FasL is delivered to the immune synapse along with granzyme and perforin-containing granules is unclear. METHODS: We stably expressed FasL-fluorescent fusion proteins into human NK cells and examined the localization of FasL relative to other intracellular markers by confocal and immunoelectron microscopy, and examined the trafficking of FasL during formation of immune synapses with HLA-deficient B cells. RESULTS: FasL co-localized with CD63 more strongly than perforin or Lamp1+ in cytolytic granules. Electron microscopy revealed that FasL is enriched on intraluminal vesicles (ILVs) adjacent to the dense-core within cytolytic granules. In NK cells forming immune synapses with HLA-deficient B cells, a portion of FasL-containing granules re-localize toward the immune synapse, while a distinct pool of FasL remains at the distal pole of the cell. CONCLUSIONS: Localization of FasL to intra-luminal vesicles within cytolytic granules facilitates FasL trafficking to immune synapses and cytotoxic function in NK cells.

Leptin affects filopodia and cofilin in NK-92 cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner.

Hyperleptinemia, associated with obesity, is related with immune dysfunction and carcinogenesis. Natural Killer (NK) cells, a major component of the innate immune system are mediators of anti-tumor immunity and the most actively migrating cells among leukocytes. Actin rearrangement, promoted by cofilin plays a central role in cellular migration. Leptin affects the phosphorylation-dependent activity of cofilin and thus actin remodeling. We used human NK-92 cells to explore the in vitro effects of leptin on co-localization of cofilin and F-actin and on morphological changes in NK cells. NK-92 cells were incubated with different leptin concentrations (10 and 100 ng/mL) for 30 min and 24 h and immunocytochemically stained. Results demonstrate a dose- and time-dependent influence of leptin on cellular morphology. Utilizing confocal microscopy, we observed that the co-localization of cofilin-1 and F-actin was slightly influenced by leptin. In summary, the present study demonstrates an impact of a physiological leptin stimulation on the filopodia length, and a time-dependent effect on the co-localization of cofilin and F-actin in NK-92 cells.

Probing the unseen structure and function of liver cells through atomic force microscopy.

With the arrival of atomic force microscopy (AFM) about thirty years ago, this new imaging tool opened up a new area for the exploration of biological samples, ranging from the tissue and cellular level down to the supramolecular scale. Commercial instruments of this new imaging technique began to appear in the five years following its discovery in 1986 by Binnig, Quate & Gerber. From that point onwards the AFM has attracted many liver biologists, and the number of publications describing structure-function relationships on the diverse set of liver cells has grown steadily ever since. It is therefore timely to reflect on the achievements of AFM in disclosing the cellular architecture of hepatocytes, liver sinusoidal endothelial cells, Kupffer cells, stellate cells and liver-associated natural killer cells. In this thematic paper, we present new data and provide an in-depth overview of the current AFM literature on liver cell biology. We furthermore include a future outlook on how this scanning probe imaging tool and its latest developments can contribute to clarify various structural and functional aspects of cells in liver health and disease.

Exposure to silver nanoparticles affects viability and function of natural killer cells, mostly via the release of ions.

Natural killer (NK) cells play a crucial role in linking innate and adaptive immune responses, especially during viral infections and tumor surveillance. They have two major effector functions: the killing of stressed/abnormal cells and the release of cytokines. Their activity is regulated via inhibitory and activating surface receptors. At the same time that the production and use of engineered nanoparticles is steadily increasing, the risk for exposure to silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) from consumer products or biomedical applications is growing. Given this, we assessed the effects of 20-nm big AgNPs on NK cells, which represent an important part of the immune system. Our study involved overnight exposure of human blood NK cells to different concentrations of AgNPs, and silver (Ag) ion controls, and analyzing them for viability, surface receptor expression, intracellular markers, cytokine release, and killing potential. Exposure to AgNPs, but not to Ag ion controls, reduced the viability and the cytotoxic potential after polyriboinosinic-polyribocytidylic acid stimulation of NK cells and increased the expression of the inhibitory receptor CD159a. Exposure to AgNPs and Ag ion controls reduced the expression of the activating receptors CD335 and of CD16 and increased the expression of the activating receptor CD314. Overall, exposure to AgNPs changes NK cells' function and phenotype and may present a risk for modulating human immune responses, which should be further investigated.

CD56 Is a Pathogen Recognition Receptor on Human Natural Killer Cells.

Aspergillus (A.) fumigatus is an opportunistic fungal mold inducing invasive aspergillosis (IA) in immunocompromised patients. Although antifungal activity of human natural killer (NK) cells was shown in previous studies, the underlying cellular mechanisms and pathogen recognition receptors (PRRs) are still unknown. Using flow cytometry we were able to show that the fluorescence positivity of the surface receptor CD56 significantly decreased upon fungal contact. To visualize the interaction site of NK cells and A. fumigatus we used SEM, CLSM and dSTORM techniques, which clearly demonstrated that NK cells directly interact with A. fumigatus via CD56 and that CD56 is re-organized and accumulated at this interaction site time-dependently. The inhibition of the cytoskeleton showed that the receptor re-organization was an active process dependent on actin re-arrangements. Furthermore, we could show that CD56 plays a role in the fungus mediated NK cell activation, since blocking of CD56 surface receptor reduced fungal mediated NK cell activation and reduced cytokine secretion. These results confirmed the direct interaction of NK cells and A. fumigatus, leading to the conclusion that CD56 is a pathogen recognition receptor. These findings give new insights into the functional role of CD56 in the pathogen recognition during the innate immune response.

Role for coronin 1 in mouse NK cell function.

Coronin 1, a member of the evolutionary conserved WD repeat protein family of coronin proteins is expressed in all leukocytes, but a role for coronin 1 in natural killer (NK) cell homeostasis and function remains unclear. Here, we have analyzed the number and functionality of NK cells in the presence and absence of coronin 1. In coronin 1-deficient mice, absolute NK cell numbers and phenotype were comparable to wild type mice in blood, spleen and liver. Following in vitro stimulation of the activating NK cell receptors NK1.1, NKp46, Ly49D and NKG2D, coronin 1-deficient NK cells were functional with respect to interferon-γ production, degranulation and intracellular Ca2+ mobilization. Also, both wild type as well as coronin 1-deficient NK cells showed comparable cytotoxic activity. Furthermore, activation and functionality of NK cells following Vesicular Stomatitis Virus (VSV) infection was similar between wild type and coronin 1-deficient mice. Taken together these data suggest that coronin 1 is dispensable for mouse NK cell homeostasis and function.

Advances in Molecular Imaging Strategies for In Vivo Tracking of Immune Cells.

Tracking of immune cells in vivo is a crucial tool for development and optimization of cell-based therapy. Techniques for tracking immune cells have been applied widely for understanding the intrinsic behavior of immune cells and include non-radiation-based techniques such as optical imaging and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), radiation-based techniques such as computerized tomography (CT), and nuclear imaging including single photon emission computerized tomography (SPECT) and positron emission tomography (PET). Each modality has its own strengths and limitations. To overcome the limitations of each modality, multimodal imaging techniques involving two or more imaging modalities are actively applied. Multimodal techniques allow integration of the strengths of individual modalities. In this review, we discuss the strengths and limitations of currently available preclinical in vivo immune cell tracking techniques and summarize the value of immune cell tracking in the development and optimization of immune cell therapy for various diseases.

FoxO1-mediated autophagy is required for NK cell development and innate immunity.

Natural killer (NK) cells exert a crucial role in early immune responses as a major innate effector component. However, the underlying mechanisms of NK cell development remain largely elusive. Here we show that robust autophagy appears in the stage of immature NK cells (iNKs), which is required for NK cell development. Autophagy defects result in damaged mitochondria and accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that leads to apoptosis of NK cells. Autophagy protects NK cell viability during development through removal of damaged mitochondria and intracellular ROS. Phosphorylated Forkhead box O (FoxO)1 is located to the cytoplasm of iNKs and interacts with Atg7, leading to induction of autophagy. FoxO1 deficiency or an inactive FoxO1(AAA) mutant abrogates autophagy initiation in iNKs and impairs NK cell development and viral clearance. Therefore we conclude that FoxO1-mediated autophagy is required for NK cell development and NK cell-induced innate immunity.

[Rapid biosynthesis and release of 35 kD granzyme B by NK92 cells bypassing secretory lysosomes].

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the possibility of the biosynthesis and release of granzyme B (GZB) by NK92 cells bypassing the way of secretory lysosomes (SLs) and the possible mechanism. METHODS: As cell models, NK92 cells were activated by the phorbol myristate acetate (PMA) and ionomycin (ION). Within 4 hours following the activation, immuno- fluorescence and electron microscopy were used to detect the content and distribution of 35 000 (Mr) and 32 000 (Mr) GZB in the cytoplasm of NK92 before and after the protein synthesis was inhibited; Western blotting was performed to detect GZB inside and outside the SLs. After blocking the release of 32 000 (Mr) GZB by inhibiting the exocytosis of SLs with EDTA, we tested the content of Mr 35 000 GZB in activated NK92 supernatant. Activated NK92 cells were co-cultured with K562 cells to observe whether the Mr 35 000 GZB could enter the K562 cells. Activated NK92 cell death rate was determined and the enzyme activity of secreted Mr 35 000 GZB was examined. RESULTS: Four hours after stimulated by PMA/ION, NK92 cells generated large amount of Mr 35 000 GZB in the cytoplasm outside SLs where Mr 32 000 GZB was located. Immunoelectron microscope and immunofluorescence further approved that Mr 35 000 GZB outside SLs was located in vesicles. In addition, Mr 35 000 GZB could be secreted outside NK92 cells. Further investigation found that GZB/Serpinb9 composite and Mr 35 000 GZB could simultaneously emerge in the cytoplasm outside SLs. However, activated NK92 cell death rate did not rise. Mr 32 000 GZB inside SLs had enzyme activity in contrast with the Mr 35 000 GZB in zymogen form outside SLs, which suggested that Mr 35 000 GZB was not originated from the SLs. CONCLUSION: The activated human NK cell lines could secreted rapidly inactive Mr 35 000 GZB outside SLs, and the GZB could enter the extracellular matrix or target cells bypassing SLs, which provides a part of the extracellular GZB.

Agonist antibody that induces human malignant cells to kill one another.

An attractive, but as yet generally unrealized, approach to cancer therapy concerns discovering agents that change the state of differentiation of the cancer cells. Recently, we discovered a phenomenon that we call "receptor pleiotropism" in which agonist antibodies against known receptors induce cell fates that are very different from those induced by the natural agonist to the same receptor. Here, we show that one can take advantage of this phenomenon to convert acute myeloblastic leukemic cells into natural killer cells. Upon induction with the antibody, these leukemic cells enter into a differentiation cascade in which as many as 80% of the starting leukemic cells can be differentiated. The antibody-induced killer cells make large amounts of perforin, IFN-γ, and granzyme B and attack and kill other members of the leukemic cell population. Importantly, induction of killer cells is confined to transformed cells, in that normal bone marrow cells are not induced to form killer cells. Thus, it seems possible to use agonist antibodies to change the differentiation state of cancer cells into those that attack and kill other members of the malignant clone from which they originate.

Ultrastructure alteration of decidual natural killer cells in women with unexplained recurrent miscarriage: a possible association with impaired decidual vascular remodelling.

This study aimed to evaluate the extent of remodelling of intra-decidual segments of the spiral arteries in human deciduas between the 6th and 10th gestational weeks in women with unexplained recurrent miscarriages (RM) in comparison to gestational-matched controls. A possible association with the number, immunoexpressive behaviour and ultrastructural changes of decidual natural killer cells (dNKCs) was investigated. Decidual biopsies were obtained from RM cases (n = 40) and women with no history of spontaneous miscarriage and at least one live birth at term (n = 30). Staining was performed using PAS, anti-CD34 and anti-CD56 antibodies, using an avidin-biotin-peroxides technique. Analysis by means of light and transmission electron microscopy was employed. To determine the extent of remodelling of decidual vessels, a quantitative score was analysed using histological criteria of vascular transformation and then related to the number of CD56(+) dNKCs. In RM, dNKCs were distributed among decidual cells and around the vessels. They possessed numerous polyploidic protrusions on cell membranes crossing from one cell to another. The cells became more irregular and exhibited heterogeneous electron-dense granules in their cytoplasm compared to controls. The non-remodelling score and number of dNKCs were significantly increased in RM group (p < 0.001). The number of dNKCs was significantly correlated with the scores in both control (r = 0.491; p = 0.006) and RM (r = 0.852; p < 0.001) groups. It appears that dNKCs play a key role in impaired decidual artery remodelling that may be involved with early RM. This may be due to increased numbers of cells or impaired cellular interactions resulting from alterations to the ultrastructure.

NK cells kill mycobacteria directly by releasing perforin and granulysin.

Although the mechanisms underlying the cytotoxic effect of NK cells on tumor cells and intracellular bacteria have been studied extensively, it remains unclear how these cells kill extracellular bacterial pathogens. In this study, we examine how human NK cells kill Mycobacterium kansasii and M.tb. The underlying mechanism is contact dependent and requires two cytolytic proteins: perforin and granulysin. Mycobacteria induce enhanced expression of the cytolytic proteins via activation of the NKG2D/NCR cell-surface receptors and intracellular signaling pathways involving ERK, JNK, and p38 MAPKs. These results suggest that NK cells use similar cellular mechanisms to kill both bacterial pathogens and target host cells. This report reveals a novel role for NK cells, perforin, and granulysin in killing mycobacteria and highlights a potential alternative defense mechanism that the immune system can use against mycobacterial infection.

Visualization of the immunological synapse by dual color time-gated stimulated emission depletion (STED) nanoscopy.

Natural killer cells form tightly regulated, finely tuned immunological synapses (IS) in order to lyse virally infected or tumorigenic cells. Dynamic actin reorganization is critical to the function of NK cells and the formation of the IS. Imaging of F-actin at the synapse has traditionally utilized confocal microscopy, however the diffraction limit of light restricts resolution of fluorescence microscopy, including confocal, to approximately 200 nm. Recent advances in imaging technology have enabled the development of subdiffraction limited super-resolution imaging. In order to visualize F-actin architecture at the IS we recapitulate the NK cell cytotoxic synapse by adhering NK cells to activating receptor on glass. We then image proteins of interest using two-color stimulated emission depletion microscopy (STED). This results in <80 nm resolution at the synapse. Herein we describe the steps of sample preparation and the acquisition of images using dual color STED nanoscopy to visualize F-actin at the NK IS. We also illustrate optimization of sample acquisition using Leica SP8 software and time-gated STED. Finally, we utilize Huygens software for post-processing deconvolution of images.

Gap junction intercellular communications regulate NK cell activation and modulate NK cytotoxic capacity.

Gap junctions (GJs) mediate intercellular communication between adjacent cells. Previously, we showed that connexin 43 (Cx43), the main GJ protein in the immune system, mediates Ag transfer between human dendritic cells (DCs) and is recruited to the immunological synapse during T cell priming. This crosstalk contributed to T cell activation, intracellular Ca(2+) responses, and cytokine release. However, the role of GJs in NK cell activation by DCs and NK cell-mediated cytotoxicity against tumor cells remains unknown. In this study, we found polarization of Cx43 at the NK/DC and NK/tumor cell-contact sites, accompanied by the formation of functional GJs between NK/DCs and NK/tumor cells, respectively. Cx43-GJ-mediated intercellular communication (GJIC) between human NK and DCs was bidirectional. Blockage of Cx43-GJIC inhibited NK cell activation, though it affected neither the phenotype nor the function of DCs. Cx43 knockdown or inhibition using mimetic peptides greatly reduced CD69 and CD25 expression and IFN-γ release by DC-stimulated NK cells. Moreover, blocking Cx43 strongly inhibited the NK cell-mediated tumor cell lysis associated with inhibition of granzyme B activity and Ca(2+) influx. Our data identify a novel and active role for Cx43-GJIC in human NK cell activation and antitumor effector functions that may be important for the design of new immune therapeutic strategies.

Arf-like GTPase Arl8b regulates lytic granule polarization and natural killer cell-mediated cytotoxicity.

Natural killer (NK) lymphocytes contain lysosome-related organelles (LROs), known as lytic granules, which upon formation of immune synapse with the target cell, polarize toward the immune synapse to deliver their contents to the target cell membrane. Here, we identify a small GTP-binding protein, ADP-ribosylation factor-like 8b (Arl8b), as a critical factor required for NK cell-mediated cytotoxicity. Our findings indicate that Arl8b drives the polarization of lytic granules and microtubule-organizing centers (MTOCs) toward the immune synapse between effector NK lymphocytes and target cells. Using a glutathione S-transferase pull-down approach, we identify kinesin family member 5B (KIF5B; the heavy chain of kinesin-1) as an interaction partner of Arl8b from NK cell lysates. Previous studies showed that interaction between kinesin-1 and Arl8b is mediated by SifA and kinesin-interacting protein (SKIP) and the tripartite complex drives the anterograde movement of lysosomes. Silencing of both KIF5B and SKIP in NK cells, similar to Arl8b, led to failure of MTOC-lytic granule polarization to the immune synapse, suggesting that Arl8b and kinesin-1 together control this critical step in NK cell cytotoxicity.

Rapid reuptake of granzyme B leads to emperitosis: an apoptotic cell-in-cell death of immune killer cells inside tumor cells.

A cell-in-cell process refers to the invasion of one living cell into another homotypic or heterotypic cell. Different from non-apoptotic death processes of internalized cells termed entosis or cannibalism, we previously reported an apoptotic cell-in-cell death occurring during heterotypic cell-in-cell formation. In this study, we further demonstrated that the apoptotic cell-in-cell death occurred only in internalized immune killer cells expressing granzyme B (GzmB). Vacuole wrapping around the internalized cells inside the target cells was the common hallmark during the early stage of all cell-in-cell processes, which resulted in the accumulation of reactive oxygen species and subsequent mitochondrial injury of encapsulated killer or non-cytotoxic immune cells. However, internalized killer cells mediated rapid bubbling of the vacuoles with the subsequent degranulation of GzmB inside the vacuole of the target cells and underwent the reuptake of GzmB by killer cells themselves. The confinement of GzmB inside the vacuole surpassed the lysosome-mediated cell death occurring in heterotypic or homotypic entosis processes, resulting in a GzmB-triggered caspase-dependent apoptotic cell-in-cell death of internalized killer cells. On the contrary, internalized killer cells from GzmB-deficient mice underwent a typical non-apoptotic entotic cell-in-cell death similar to that of non-cytotoxic immune cells or tumor cells. Our results thus demonstrated the critical involvement of immune cells with cytotoxic property in apoptotic cell-in-cell death, which we termed as emperitosis taken from emperipolesis and apoptosis. Whereas entosis or cannibalism may serve as a feed-on mechanism to exacerbate and nourish tumor cells, emperitosis of immune killer cells inside tumor cells may serve as an in-cell danger sensation model to prevent the killing of target cells from inside, implying a unique mechanism for tumor cells to escape from immune surveillance.