Impact of Diverse Ion Channels on Regulatory T Cell Functions.

The population of regulatory T cells (Tregs) is critical for immunological self-tolerance and homeostasis. Proper ion regulation contributes to Treg lineage identity, regulation, and effector function. Identified ion channels include Ca2+ release-activated Ca2+, transient receptor potential, P2X, volume-regulated anion and K+ channels Kv1.3 and KCa3.1. Ion channel modulation represents a promising therapeutic approach for the treatment of autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis. This review summarizes studies with gene-targeted mice and pharmacological modulators affecting Treg number and function. Furthermore, participation of ion channels is illustrated and the power of future research possibilities is discussed.

A role for TASK2 channels in the human immunological synapse.

The immunological synapse is a transient junction that occurs when the plasma membrane of a T cell comes in close contact with an APC after recognizing a peptide from the antigen-MHC. The interaction starts when CRAC channels embedded in the T cell membrane open, flowing calcium ions into the cell. To counterbalance the ion influx and subsequent depolarization, Kv 1.3 and KCa3.1 channels are recruited to the immunological synapse, increasing the extracellular K+ concentration. These processes are crucial as they initiate gene expression that drives T cell activation and proliferation. The T cell-specific function of the K2P channel family member TASK2 channels and their role in autoimmune processes remains unclear. Using mass spectrometry analysis together with epifluorescence and super-resolution single-molecule localization microscopy, we identified TASK2 channels as novel players recruited to the immunological synapse upon stimulation. TASK2 localizes at the immunological synapse, upon stimulation with CD3 antibodies, likely interacting with these molecules. Our findings suggest that, together with Kv 1.3 and KCa3.1 channels, TASK2 channels contribute to the proper functioning of the immunological synapse, and represent an interesting treatment target for T cell-mediated autoimmune disorders.

Co-staining of KCa 3.1 Channels in NSCLC Cells with a Small-Molecule Fluorescent Probe and Antibody-Based Indirect Immunofluorescence.

The Ca2+ activated potassium channel 3.1 (KCa 3.1) is involved in critical steps of the metastatic cascade, such as proliferation, migration, invasion and extravasation. Therefore, a fast and efficient protocol for imaging of KCa 3.1 channels was envisaged. The novel fluorescently labeled small molecule imaging probes 1 and 2 were synthesized by connecting a dimethylpyrrole-based BODIPY dye with a derivative of the KCa 3.1 channel inhibitor senicapoc via linkers of different length. Patch-clamp experiments revealed the inhibition of KCa 3.1 channels by the probes confirming interaction with the channel. Both probes 1 and 2 were able to stain KCa 3.1 channels in non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells following a simple, fast and efficient protocol. Pre-incubation with unlabeled senicapoc removed the punctate staining pattern showing the specificity of the new probes 1 and 2. Staining of the channel with the fluorescently labeled senicapoc derivatives 1 or 2 or with antibody-based indirect immunofluorescence yielded identical or very similar densities of stained KCa 3.1 channels. However, co-staining using both methods did not lead to the expected overlapping punctate staining pattern. This observation was explained by docking studies showing that the antibody used for indirect immunofluorescence and the probes 1 and 2 label different channel populations. Whereas the antibody binds at the closed channel conformation, the probes 1 and 2 bind within the open channel.

ORAI1 and ORAI2 modulate murine neutrophil calcium signaling, cellular activation, and host defense.

Calcium signals are initiated in immune cells by the process of store-operated calcium entry (SOCE), where receptor activation triggers transient calcium release from the endoplasmic reticulum, followed by opening of plasma-membrane calcium-release activated calcium (CRAC) channels. ORAI1, ORAI2, and ORAI3 are known to comprise the CRAC channel; however, the contributions of individual isoforms to neutrophil function are not well understood. Here, we show that loss of ORAI1 partially decreases calcium influx, while loss of both ORAI1 and ORAI2 completely abolishes SOCE. In other immune-cell types, loss of ORAI2 enhances SOCE. In contrast, we find that ORAI2-deficient neutrophils display decreased calcium influx, which is correlated with measurable differences in the regulation of neutrophil membrane potential via KCa3.1. Decreased SOCE in ORAI1-, ORAI2-, and ORAI1/2-deficient neutrophils impairs multiple neutrophil functions, including phagocytosis, degranulation, leukotriene, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, rendering ORAI1/2-deficient mice highly susceptible to staphylococcal infection. This study demonstrates that ORAI1 and ORAI2 are the primary components of the neutrophil CRAC channel and identifies subpopulations of neutrophils where cell-membrane potential functions as a rheostat to modulate the SOCE response. These findings have implications for mechanisms that modulate neutrophil function during infection, acute and chronic inflammatory conditions, and cancer.

The emerging role of red blood cells in cytokine signalling and modulating immune cells.

For many years red blood cells have been described as inert bystanders rather than participants in intercellular signalling, immune function, and inflammatory processes. However, studies are now reporting that red blood cells from healthy individuals regulate immune cell activity and maturation, and red blood cells from disease cohorts are dysfunctional. These cells have now been shown to bind more than 50 cytokines and have been described as a sink for these molecules, and the loss of this activity has been correlated with disease progression. In this review, we summarise what is currently understood about the role of red blood cells in cytokine signalling and in modulating the activity of immune cells. We also discuss the implications of these findings for transfusion medicine and in furthering our understanding of anaemia of chronic inflammation. By bringing these disparate units of work together, we aim to shine a light on an area that requires significantly more investigation.

Ca2+-Activated K+ Channel KCa3.1 as a Therapeutic Target for Immune Disorders.

In lymphoid and myeloid cells, membrane hyperpolarization by the opening of K+ channels increases the activity of Ca2+ release-activated Ca2+ (CRAC) channels and transient receptor potential (TRP) Ca2+ channels. The intermediate-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channel KCa3.1 plays an important role in cell proliferation, differentiation, migration, and cytokine production in innate and adaptive immune systems. KCa3.1 is therefore an attractive therapeutic target for allergic, inflammatory, and autoimmune disorders. In the past several years, studies have provided new insights into 1) KCa3.1 pharmacology and its auxiliary regulators; 2) post-transcriptional and proteasomal regulation of KCa3.1; 3) KCa3.1 as a regulator of immune cell migration, cytokine production, and phenotypic polarization; 4) the role of KCa3.1 in the phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of Smad2/3; and 5) KCa3.1 as a therapeutic target for cancer immunotherapy. In this review, we have assembled a comprehensive overview of current research on the physiological and pathophysiological significance of KCa3.1 in the immune system.

Human T cells in silico: Modelling dynamic intracellular calcium and its influence on cellular electrophysiology.

A network of ion currents influences basic cellular T cell functions. After T cell receptor activation, changes in highly regulated calcium levels play a central role in triggering effector functions and cell differentiation. A dysregulation of these processes might be involved in the pathogenesis of several diseases. We present a mathematical model based on the NEURON simulation environment that computes dynamic calcium levels in combination with the current output of diverse ion channels (KV1.3, KCa3.1, K2P channels (TASK1-3, TRESK), VRAC, TRPM7, CRAC). In line with experimental data, the simulation shows a strong increase in intracellular calcium after T cell receptor stimulation before reaching a new, elevated calcium plateau in the T cell's activated state. Deactivation of single ion channel modules, mimicking the application of channel blockers, reveals that two types of potassium channels are the main regulators of intracellular calcium level: calcium-dependent potassium (KCa3.1) and two-pore-domain potassium (K2P) channels.

Role of the K(Ca)3.1 K+ channel in auricular lymph node CD4+ T-lymphocyte function of the delayed-type hypersensitivity model.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The intermediate-conductance Ca(2+)-activated K(+) channel (K(Ca)3.1) modulates the Ca(2+) response through the control of the membrane potential in the immune system. We investigated the role of K(Ca)3.1 on the pathogenesis of delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) in auricular lymph node (ALN) CD4(+) T-lymphocytes of oxazolone (Ox)-induced DTH model mice. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: The expression patterns of K(Ca)3.1 and its possible transcriptional regulators were compared among ALN T-lymphocytes of three groups [non-sensitized (Ox-/-), Ox-sensitized, but non-challenged (Ox+/-) and Ox-sensitized and -challenged (Ox+/+)] using real-time polymerase chain reaction, Western blotting and flow cytometry. KCa 3.1 activity was measured by whole-cell patch clamp and the voltage-sensitive dye imaging. The effects of K(Ca)3.1 blockade were examined by the administration of selective K(Ca)3.1 blockers. KEY RESULTS: Significant up-regulation of K(Ca)3.1a was observed in CD4(+) T-lymphocytes of Ox+/- and Ox+/+, without any evident changes in the expression of the dominant-negative form, K(Ca)3.1b. Negatively correlated with this, the repressor element-1 silencing transcription factor (REST) was significantly down-regulated. Pharmacological blockade of K(Ca)3.1 resulted in an accumulation of the CD4(+) T-lymphocytes of Ox+/+ at the G0/G1 phase of the cell cycle, and also significantly recovered not only the pathogenesis of DTH, but also the changes in the K(Ca)3.1 expression and activity in the CD4(+) T-lymphocytes of Ox+/- and Ox+/+. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: The up-regulation of K(Ca)3.1a in conjunction with the down-regulation of REST may be involved in CD4(+) T-lymphocyte proliferation in the ALNs of DTH model mice; and K(Ca)3.1 may be an important target for therapeutic intervention in allergy diseases such as DTH.

Calcium-activated potassium channel KCa3.1 in lung dendritic cell migration.

Migration to draining lymph nodes is a critical requirement for dendritic cells (DCs) to control T-cell-mediated immunity. The calcium-activated potassium channel KCa3.1 has been shown to be involved in regulating cell migration in multiple cell types. In this study, KCa3.1 expression and its functional role in lung DC migration were examined. Fluorescence-labeled antigen was intranasally delivered into mouse lungs to label lung Ag-carrying DCs. Lung CD11c(high)CD11b(low) and CD11c(low)CD11b(high) DCs from PBS-treated and ovalbumin (OVA)-sensitized mice were sorted using MACS and FACS. Indo-1 and DiBAC4(3) were used to measure intracellular Ca(2+) and membrane potential, respectively. The mRNA expression of KCa3.1 was examined using real-time PCR. Expression of KCa3.1 protein and CCR7 was measured using flow cytometry. Migration of two lung DC subsets to lymphatic chemokines was examined using TransWell in the absence or presence of the KCa3.1 blocker TRAM-34. OVA sensitization up-regulated mRNA and protein expression of KCa3.1 in lung DCs, with a greater response by the CD11c(high)CD11b(low) than CD11c(low)CD11b(high) DCs. Although KCa3.1 expression in Ag-carrying DCs was higher than that in non-Ag-carrying DCs in OVA-sensitized mice, the difference was not as prominent. However, Ag-carrying lung DCs expressed significantly higher CCR7 than non-Ag-carrying DCs. CCL19, CCL21, and KCa3.1 activator 1-EBIO induced an increase in intracellular calcium in both DC subsets. In addition, 1-EBIO-induced calcium increase was suppressed by TRAM-34. In vitro blockade of KCa3.1 with TRAM-34 impaired CCL19/CCL21-induced transmigration. In conclusion, KCa3.1 expression in lung DCs is up-regulated by OVA sensitization in both lung DC subsets, and KCa3.1 is involved in lung DC migration to lymphatic chemokines.

Lymphocyte calcium influx characteristics and their modulation by Kv1.3 and IKCa1 channel inhibitors in healthy pregnancy and preeclampsia.

PROBLEM: Calcium handling of T lymphocytes is altered in healthy pregnancy (HP) and preeclampsia (PE) compared to non-pregnant (non-P) women. We compared the activation-elicited calcium influx in T lymphocytes in HP, PE and non-P women and tested its alteration upon inhibition of Kv1.3 and IKCa1 potassium channels. METHOD OF STUDY: The alteration of calcium influx was measured in major T-lymphocyte subsets of 9 non-P, HP and PE women with flow cytometry with or without treatment of cells with potassium channel inhibitors. RESULTS: The elicited calcium response was lower in HP compared to non-P. In HP, calcium influx was sensitive to potassium channel inhibition in CD8 and Th1, but not in Th2 cells. In PE, calcium influx and its sensitivity to inhibition were comparable to non-P. CONCLUSION: There is a characteristic pattern of calcium influx in T lymphocytes and its sensitivity to potassium channel inhibition in HP that is missing in PE, raising the notion that T-lymphocyte calcium handling may have a role in the characteristic immune status of HP.

Paneth's disease.

In about 70% of patients Crohn's disease (CD) affects the small intestine. This disease location is stable over time and associated with a genetic background different from isolated colonic disease. A characteristic feature of small intestinal host defense is the presence of Paneth cells at the bottom of the crypts of Lieberkühn. These cells produce different broad spectrum antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) most abundantly the α-defensins HD-5 and -6 (DEFA5 und DEFA6). In small intestinal Crohn's disease both these PC products are specifically reduced. As a functional consequence, ileal extracts from Crohn's disease patients are compromised in clearing bacteria and enteroadherent E. coli colonize the mucosa. Mechanisms for defective antimicrobial Paneth cell function are complex and include an association with a NOD2 loss of function mutation, a disturbance of the Wnt pathway transcription factor TCF7L2 (also known as TCF4), the autophagy factor ATG16L1, the endosomal stress protein XBP1, the toll-like receptor TLR9, the calcium mediated potassium channel KCNN4 as well as mutations or inactivation of HD5. Thus we conclude that small intestinal Crohn's disease is most likely a complex disease of the Paneth cell: Paneth's disease.

T-lymphocyte calcium influx characteristics and their modulation by Kv1.3 and IKCa1 channel inhibitors in the neonate.

Cytokine production in activated T lymphocytes of the term neonate is reduced compared with adults. We aimed to characterize the calcium influx kinetics of activated T lymphocytes in the neonate and to test the functionality and expression of Kv1.3 and IKCa1 lymphocyte potassium channels, important regulators of calcium influx. We isolated lymphocytes from the peripheral blood of nine adults and cord blood of nine term neonates. We measured the calcium influx kinetics with flow cytometry in the T(h)1, T(h)2, CD4 and CD8 T-lymphocyte subsets activated with PHA. We determined the sensitivity of calcium influx to specific inhibitors of the Kv1.3 and IKCa1 channels. We also measured Kv1.3 channel expression using specific antibody. With the exception of the CD4 subset, calcium influx kinetics was decreased upon activation in neonatal T lymphocytes compared with adults. Neonatal T lymphocytes were found to be less sensitive to the specific inhibition of Kv1.3 and IKCa1 channels. The expression of Kv1.3 channels was higher on major T-lymphocyte subsets of newborns except for T(h)1 lymphocytes. Our findings suggest that the characteristics of short-term activation of major neonatal T-lymphocyte subsets are altered compared with adults. The altered function of neonatal lymphocyte potassium channels may contribute to this phenomenon.

Lymphocyte activation in type 1 diabetes mellitus: the increased significance of Kv1.3 potassium channels.

Kv1.3 and IKCa1 potassium channels participate in the maintenance of calcium-influx during lymphocyte activation. Kv1.3 channels have a prominent role in specific T cell subsets, presenting a possible target for selective immunomodulation. We investigated the impact of Kv1.3 and IKCa1 channel inhibitors on calcium-influx characteristics in human T cells in type 1 diabetes mellitus. We isolated lymphocytes from 9 healthy and 9 type 1 diabetic individuals and measured the alteration of calcium-influx with flow cytometry in the Th1, Th2, CD4 and CD8 subsets after treatment of samples with specific channel inhibitors. Our results indicate an increased reactivity of type 1 diabetes lymphocytes, which is correlated to their increased sensitivity to Kv1.3 channel inhibition. However, the contribution of Kv1.3 channels to calcium flux is not exclusive for a specific lymphocyte subset as previous reports suggest, but is characteristic for each subset investigated. Therefore, the proposed inhibition of Kv1.3 channels as a novel therapeutic approach for the treatment of type 1 diabetes mellitus may have a major effect on overall lymphocyte function in this disease.

Inhibition of the K+ channel KCa3.1 ameliorates T cell-mediated colitis.

The calcium-activated K(+) channel KCa3.1 plays an important role in T lymphocyte Ca(2+) signaling by helping to maintain a negative membrane potential, which provides an electrochemical gradient to drive Ca(2+) influx. To assess the role of KCa3.1 channels in lymphocyte activation in vivo, we studied T cell function in KCa3.1(-/-) mice. CD4 T helper (i.e., Th0) cells isolated from KCa3.1(-/-) mice lacked KCa3.1 channel activity, which resulted in decreased T cell receptor-stimulated Ca(2+) influx and IL-2 production. Although loss of KCa3.1 did not interfere with CD4 T cell differentiation, both Ca(2+) influx and cytokine production were impaired in KCa3.1(-/-) Th1 and Th2 CD4 T cells, whereas T-regulatory and Th17 function were normal. We found that inhibition of KCa3.1(-/-) protected mice from developing severe colitis in two mouse models of inflammatory bowel disease, which were induced by (i) the adoptive transfer of mouse naïve CD4 T cells into rag2(-/-) recipients and (ii) trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid. Pharmacologic inhibitors of KCa3.1 have already been shown to be safe in humans. Thus, if these preclinical studies continue to show efficacy, it may be possible to rapidly test whether KCa3.1 inhibitors are efficacious in patients with inflammatory bowel diseases such as Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis.

Blockade of T-lymphocyte KCa3.1 and Kv1.3 channels as novel immunosuppression strategy to prevent kidney allograft rejection.

Currently, there is an unmet clinical need for novel immunosuppressive agents for long-term prevention of kidney transplant rejection as alternatives to the nephrotoxic calcineurin inhibitor cyclosporine (CsA). Recent studies have shown that K(+) channels have a crucial role in T-lymphocyte activity. We investigated whether combined blockade of the T-cell K(+) channels K(Ca)3.1 and K(v)1.3, both of which regulate calcium signaling during lymphocyte activation, is effective in prevention of rejection of kidney allografts from Fisher rats to Lewis rats. All recipients were initially treated with CsA (5 mg/kg d) for 7 days. In rats with intact allograft function, treatment was continued for 10 days with either CsA (5 mg/kg d), or a combination of TRAM-34 (K(Ca)3.1 inhibitor; 120 mg/kg d) plus Stichodactyla helianthus toxin (ShK, K(v)1.3 inhibitor; 80 microg/kg 3 times daily), or vehicle alone. Kidney sections were stained with periodic acid-Schiff or hematoxylin-eosin and histochemically for markers of macrophages (CD68), T-lymphocytes (CD43), or cytotoxic T-cells (CD8). Our results showed that treatment with TRAM-34 and ShK reduced total interstitial mononuclear cell infiltration (-42%) and the number of CD43+ T-cells (-32%), cytotoxic CD8+ T-cells (-32%), and CD68+ macrophages (-26%) in allografts when compared to vehicle treatment alone. Efficacy of TRAM-34/ShK treatment was comparable with that of CsA. In addition, no visible organ damage or other discernible adverse effects were observed with this treatment. Thus, selective blockade of T-lymphocyte K(Ca)3.1 and K(v)1.3 channels may represent a novel alternative therapy for prevention of kidney allograft rejection.