Intervenciones de enfermería para la atención de la mujer en el proceso del climaterio y la menopausia, aplicada en el primer nivel de atención / Nursing interventions for the care of women in menopause and menopause process applied at three levels of care

Introducción: La menopausia es el resultado de la pérdida de la actividad folicular del ovario . En México el aumento de la esperanza de vida nos sitúa ante un nuevo perfil epidemiológico, se espera que para el año 2035, una de cada 3 mujeres estará en la etapa del climaterio o menopausia . El objetivo de esta Guía de Práctica Clínica (GPC) es establecer un referente nacional para generar intervenciones de enfermería en el cuidado de la mujer en el proceso de climaterio y menopausia. Metodología: La búsqueda sistemática de información se enfocó en documentos relacionados con el tema, intervenciones de enfermería en el climaterio y menopausia, para dar respuesta a las preguntas estructuradas, a partir de las climacteric, menopause, postmenopause, premenopause, diagnosis, etiology, metabolism, psychology, complications, therapy, drug effects. Se utilizaron los buscadores PUBMED, LILACS, CINAHL y TRIP DATABASE. Las recomendaciones se tomaron de GPC internacionales, meta-análisis, ensayos clínicos aleatorizados y estudios observaciones. La información se expresa en niveles de evidencia (E) y grado de recomendación (R) de acuerdo al características del diseño y tipo de estudio.Resultados: Esta GPC ofrece evidencia sobre las intervenciones del profesional de enfermería al cuidado de la mujer en el proceso de climaterio y menopausia, para la promoción de la salud, detección oportuna y limitación de daños y riesgos en el climaterio y menopausia. Conclusión: La aplicación de la GPC permite homogeneizar criterios en el cuidado del climaterio y la menopausia para otorgar una atención con calidad.

Introduction: Menopause is the result of loss of ovarian follicular activity. In Mexico the increase in life expectancy presents us with a new epidemiological profile, it is expected that by the year 2035, one out of every 3 women will be in menopause or climacteric. The objective of this Clinical Practice Guideline (CPG) is to establish a national benchmark to generate nursing interventions in the care of women in the process of menopause and menopause.Methodology: The systematic search for information focused on related subject, nursing interventions in climacteric and menopause, to respond to structured questions from keywords documents: climacteric, menopause, postmenopause, premenopause, diagnosis, etiology, metabolism, psychology, complications, therapy, drug effects. the PUBMED, LILACS, CINAHL and TRIP DATABASE searchers were used. The recommendations were taken from international GPC, meta-analyzes, randomized trials and observational studies. The information is expressed in levels of evidence (E) and grade of recommendation (R) according to the characteristics of the design and type of study.Results: This CPG provides evidence on interventions nurse to care for women in menopause and menopause process, for health promotion, early detection and damage limitation and risks in the climacteric and menopause. Conclusion: The application of the GPC allows homogenize criteria in the care of climacteric and menopause to provide quality care.

Introduction: La ménopause est le résultat de la perte de l'activité folliculaire ovarienne. Au Mexique, l'augmentation de l'espérance de vie nous présente un nouveau profil épidémiologique, il est prévu que d'ici l'an 2035, une personne sur 3 femmes seront en ménopause ou climatérique. L'objectif de ce guide de pratique clinique (CPG) est d'établir une référence nationale pour générer des interventions de soins infirmiers dans les soins des femmes dans le processus de la ménopause et de la ménopause.Méthodologie: La recherche systématique de l'information axée sur sujet connexe, les interventions infirmières en climatère et la ménopause, pour répondre à des questions structurées à partir des mots-clés: documents climatérique, la ménopause, la postménopause, la préménopause, le diagnostic, effets étiologie, le métabolisme, la psychologie, les complications, la thérapie, la drogue. PubMed, LILACS, CINAHL et TRIP chercheurs DATABASE ont été utilisés. Les recommandations ont été prises à partir de GPC, les méta-analyses internationales, des essais randomisés et des études d'observation. L'information est exprimée en niveaux de preuve (E) et la teneur de la recommandation (R) en fonction des caractéristiques de la conception et le type d'étude. Résultats: Ce CPG fournit la preuve sur les interventions infirmières aux soins pour les femmes en ménopause et le processus de la ménopause, pour la promotion de la santé, la détection précoce et la limitation des dommages et des risques dans la ménopause et la ménopause.Conclusion: L'application de la GPC permet d'homogénéiser les critères de la prise en charge de la ménopause et de la ménopause pour fournir des soins de qualité.

[Ovary: ontogenesis and aging].

The neuroendocrine mechanisms of development and aging of ovary as the main reproductive organ are considered in the review. There are the analysed data of new investigation which is connected with the role of immune cells of ovary at involutive processes in reproductive system.

The roles of the immune system in women's reproduction: evolutionary constraints and life history trade-offs.

Life history theory posits that, as long as survival is assured, finite resources are available for reproduction, maintenance, and growth/storage. To maximize lifetime reproductive success, resources are subject to trade-offs both within individuals and between current and future investment. For women, reproducing is costly and time-consuming; the bulk of available resources must be allocated to reproduction at the expense of more flexible systems like immune function. When reproducing women contract infectious diseases, the resources required for immune activation can fundamentally shift the patterns of resource allocation. Adding to the complexity of the reproductive-immune trade-offs in women are the pleiotropic effects of many immune factors, which were modified to serve key roles in mammalian reproduction. In this review, we explore the complex intersections between immune function and female reproduction to situate proximate immunological processes within a life history framework. After a brief overview of the immune system, we discuss some important physiological roles of immune factors in women's reproduction and the conflicts that may arise when these factors must play dual roles. We then discuss the influence of reproductive-immune trade-offs on the patterning of lifetime reproductive success: (1) the effect of immune activation/infectious disease on the timing of life history events; (2) the role of the immune system, immune activation, and infectious disease on resource allocation within individual reproductive events, particularly pregnancy; and (3) the role of the immune system in shaping the offspring's patterns of future life history trade-offs. We close with a discussion of future directions in reproductive immunology for anthropologists.

Parameters of cellular immunity in perimenopausal patients with glandular and adenomatous endometrial hyperplasia.

No appreciable disorders of cellular immunity were detected in patients with glandular cystic endometrial hyperplasia. Atypical endometrial hyperplasia was associated with quantitative changes in T lymphocytes and their subpopulations, decreased level of lymphocytes carrying activation antigens, and increased count of natural killers. These changes can be characterized as immunocompensation.

Increase in cytokine production (IL-1 beta, IL-6, TNF-alpha but not IFN-gamma, GM-CSF or LIF) by stimulated whole blood cells in postmenopausal osteoporosis.

Postmenopausal osteoporosis is a progressive disorder characterized by a decreased bone mass and increased susceptibility to fractures. Several investigations have suggested that one of the mechanisms through which estrogen prevents bone loss was a modulation on secretion or release of various cytokines that are known to influence bone remodeling, even if some recent data have challenged this hypothesis. However, in established osteoporosis, the possibility that enhanced cytokines activity may account for the progression of this disease remains unclear and controversial. We sought here to determine whether production of IL-1 beta, IL-6, TNF-alpha, IFN-gamma, GM-CSF and LIF, after direct stimulation in whole blood, was different in healthy (n = 30) or osteoporotic postmenopausal women (n = 24) and whether lumbar bone density (1-BMD) correlated with the values of cytokine production observed in these conditions. A significant difference was observed between the osteoporotic and control subjects for IL-1 beta (p < 0.0001), IL-6 (p < 0.001) and TNF-alpha (p = 0.027) productions, the values being higher in the osteoporotic women. No significant differences between the groups were observed for IFN-gamma (p = 0.51), GM-CSF (p = 0.70) or LIF (p = 0.97). In the whole population, statistically significant negative correlations were observed between lumbar BMD and IL-1 beta (r = -0.46) (p < 0.0005), IL-6 (r = -0.50) (p < 0.0001) and TNF-alpha (r = -0.39) (p < 0.005) production while no such correlations were observed for IFN-gamma, GM-CSF or LIF. In conclusion, the study of cytokine production by immune cells cultured in autologous whole blood suggests that in women more than 10 years past the menopause and presenting a decrease in lumbar bone density corresponding to the new WHO definition of "osteoporosis', production of IL-1 beta, IL-6 and TNF-alpha is still increased compared to controls matched for age and ovarian function, while no differences are reported for IFN-gamma, GM-CSF or LIF production.

Is irregular regression of corpora lutea in climacteric women caused by age-induced alterations in the "tissue control system"?

PROBLEM: We have recently observed that the regression of corpora lutea (CL) in women during the reproductive period of life is accompanied by a diminution of Thy-1 differentiation protein release from vascular pericytes and an accumulation of T lymphocytes and activated macrophages among both degenerating granulosa lutein cells (GLC) and theca lutein cells. These data suggest that the immune system and other stromal factors, representing components of the "tissue control system," may play a role in regression of the CL. We investigated degenerating CL from climacteric women to address the possibility that the decline of immune functions with advancing age may result in incomplete regression of luteal tissue. This could contribute to the altered hormonal profiles and abnormal uterine bleeding that frequently occur during the climacteric. METHOD: Immunoperoxidase staining and image analysis were used to localize Thy-1 differentiation protein of vascular pericytes, cytokeratin staining of GLC, neural cell adhesion molecule expression by theca lutein cells, CD15 of neutrophils, CD4, CD14, CD68, and leukocyte common antigens of macrophages, and CD3 and CD8 determinants of T lymphocytes. We also investigated the expression of luteinizing hormone receptor (LH receptor) and mitogen activated protein kinases (MAP kinases) in luteal cells. Samples of regressing luteal tissue were obtained during the follicular phase from perimenopausal women (age 45-50) who exhibited prolonged or irregular cycles. For comparison, luteal tissues from women with regular cycles (age 29-45) and CL of pregnancy were also investigated. RESULTS: Corpora lutea of the climacteric women exhibited irregular regression of luteal tissue characterized by a lack of cytoplasmic vacuolization and nuclear pyknosis in GLC, and by a persistence of theca lutein cells exhibiting hyperplasia and adjacent theca externa layers. This was accompanied by a continuing release of Thy-1 differentiation protein from vascular pericytes. Persisting GLC lacked surface expression of macrophage markers (CD4, CD14, CD68 and leukocyte common antigen) as well as nuclear granules exhibiting CD15 of neutrophils, detected in regularly regressing GLC. In addition, such persisting GLC showed weak or no LH receptor expression, and retained the expression of cytokeratin. They also exhibited enhanced staining for MAP kinases. Strong cytoplasmic MAP kinase expression with occasional nuclear translocation was also detected in persisting theca lutein cells, indicating high metabolic activity of these cells. T lymphocytes, although occasionally present in luteal stroma within luteal convolutions, did not invade among persisting GLC and were virtually absent from layers of theca externa and theca lutein cells. CONCLUSIONS: These data indicate that the regressing CL in climacteric women may exhibit persistence of luteal cells, perhaps because of age-induced alterations of the immune system and other local stromal homeostatic mechanisms involved in the elimination of luteal cells. Persisting GLC and/or theca lutein cells may exhibit abnormal hormonal secretion that contributes to the alteration of target tissues, such as the endometrium, resulting in abnormal uterine bleeding, hyperplasia, and neoplasia.

Effect of estrogen replacement therapy on natural killer cell activity in postmenopausal women.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the impact of menopause and estradiol substitution on natural killer cell activity. METHODS: Natural killer cell activity and antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity were measured in peripheral blood of 53 postmenopausal and 20 premenopausal women in an interval of 3 weeks. Postmenopausal patients were randomly assigned to receive either estradiol valerate (2 mg daily) orally (n = 18), estradiol (50 micrograms/24 h) transcutaneously (n = 18) or no substitution (n = 17), and the testing was repeated 3 weeks later. RESULTS: Natural killer cell activity but not antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity was significantly (P < 0.01) higher in unsubstituted postmenopausal compared to premenopausal subjects. Natural killer cell activity decreased both in orally and transcutaneously estradiol-treated patients (mean [S.D.] before vs. after 3 weeks; oral: 60.8 [9.2]% vs. 52.8 [8.2]% P < 0.01; transcutaneous: 61.5 [10.6]% vs. 54.3 [9.1]% P < 0.01; no substitution: 60.6 [10.6]% vs. 59.3 [8.9]% P > 0.1), whereas antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity showed no changes. The addition of 0.1 to 10 ng/ml estradiol to peripheral blood mononuclear cells of untreated postmenopausal women in vitro had no influence upon natural killer cell activity. CONCLUSION: Postmenopausal women receiving no estrogen replacement exhibited an increased natural killer cell activity which decreased during estrogen substitution.

El climaterio¿ Cambio Fisiológico o enfermedad?

El climaterio es un fenómeno fisiológico que tiene connotaciones francamente patológicas debido a la estrógeno-deficiencia asociada. La menopausia o mestruación final separa un período previo relativamente corto, la premenopausia, de otro más prolongado, la postmenopausia, con alteraciones hormonales y metabólicas. Desde el punto de vista endocrino se observa una caída en el estradiol asociada a elevación en las gonadotropinas, particularmente de la FSH. El principal estrógeno circulante será entonces el sulfato de estrona, resultado de la aromatización periférica de androstenediona. Su concentración es mayor en las obesas pero es variable, y puede determinarse indirectamente a través de la prueba de progesterona. El climaterio tiene manifestaciones a corto y a largo plazo. Los síntomas vasomotores son comunes y muy molestos, al igual que las manifestaciones urogenitales(dispareunia, incontinencia urinaria"síndrome uretral"), las psicológicas, sexuales y los cambios de la piel; la estrógenoterapia es frecuentemente prescrita con buenos resultados. Las alteraciones metabólicas que se observan en el transcurso de los años tienen mayor importancia desde el punto de vista de la morbi-mortalidad. La disminución de la masa ósea observada en la osteoporosis postmenopáusica lleva a fracturas, cuadros dolorosos, deformidades y eventual invalidez y/o muerte; la aterosclerosis es sin embargo el aspecto más importante(aumento en la incidencia de enfermedad coronaria y accidentes cerebro-vasculares). El efecto benéfico es probablemente de origen multifactorial pero se debe destacar la revisión del patrón lipídico aterogénico que se ve de la postmenopusia. Aunque hay distintas formas de tratar cada una de las alteraciones observadas durante el climaterio, la estrógenoterapia es la única que previene y /o corrige todas ellas. Existen contraindicaciones clásicas para el uso de los estrógenos, pero el principal debate está relacionado con los cánceres femeninos. El del endometrio se combate de menera efectiva con la adición de un progestágeno, el cual no es necesario usarlo en mujeres histerectomizadas. En cuanto al cáncer de seno, tumor de mayor incidencia en estas etapas postreras de la vida, su incidencia no parece afectarse con el uso de estrógenos a corto plazo (3.5 y hasta 10 años) y sólo parece tener un impacto menor, un ligero incremento en la incidencia, cuando se usa por más de 10 años(truncado 2500 caracteres)