Differently different?: A commentary on the emerging social cognitive neuroscience of female autism.

Autism is a neurodevelopmental condition, behaviourally identified, which is generally characterised by social communication differences, and restrictive and repetitive patterns of behaviour and interests. It has long been claimed that it is more common in males. This observed preponderance of males in autistic populations has served as a focussing framework in all spheres of autism-related issues, from recognition and diagnosis through to theoretical models and research agendas. One related issue is the near total absence of females in key research areas. For example, this paper reports a review of over 120 brain-imaging studies of social brain processes in autism that reveals that nearly 70% only included male participants or minimal numbers (just one or two) of females. Authors of such studies very rarely report that their cohorts are virtually female-free and discuss their findings as though applicable to all autistic individuals. The absence of females can be linked to exclusionary consequences of autism diagnostic procedures, which have mainly been developed on male-only cohorts. There is clear evidence that disproportionately large numbers of females do not meet diagnostic criteria and are then excluded from ongoing autism research. Another issue is a long-standing assumption that the female autism phenotype is broadly equivalent to that of the male autism phenotype. Thus, models derived from male-based studies could be applicable to females. However, it is now emerging that certain patterns of social behaviour may be very different in females. This includes a specific type of social behaviour called camouflaging or masking, linked to attempts to disguise autistic characteristics. With respect to research in the field of sex/gender cognitive neuroscience, there is emerging evidence of female differences in patterns of connectivity and/or activation in the social brain that are at odds with those reported in previous, male-only studies. Decades of research have excluded or overlooked females on the autistic spectrum, resulting in the construction of inaccurate and misleading cognitive neuroscience models, and missed opportunities to explore the brain bases of this highly complex condition. A note of warning needs to be sounded about inferences drawn from past research, but if future research addresses this problem of male bias, then a deeper understanding of autism as a whole, as well as in previously overlooked females, will start to emerge.

Autism is a neurodevelopmental condition, behaviourally identified, which is generally characterised by social communication differences, and restrictive and repetitive patterns of behaviour and interests. It has long been claimed that it is more common in males, with oft-quoted ratios of 4M: 1F. This has been reflected in the development of diagnostic criteria for autism and, consequently, of measures of eligibility for autism research programmes, with females being (as is now emerging) disproportionately excluded.As outlined in this review, this issue has been particularly problematic in brain-based studies of autism. Many studies have only tested male autistic participants, or minimal numbers of autistic females. By default, sex differences were not examined. But the impression given by such research reports has commonly been that the findings would be applicable to all autistic individuals.Recent psychological and clinical research has shown that there are a significant number of autistic females who have been missed by traditional diagnostic practices. Their inclusion has increased their eligibility for autism research studies. With respect to brain research, it has become possible to devise studies with matched numbers of autistic females and males, and to replicate studies that have previously only tested males. Newly emerging findings from such studies are demonstrating that the 'robust' autism-related differences previously observed in autistic male-only cohorts do not fully generalise to autistic females.It will be necessary to exercise caution in drawing inferences from previous male-biased studies of the autistic brain. However, the identification and inclusion of previously excluded female autistic participants hopefully offers more accurate insights into this highly complex and heterogeneous condition.

Distance and grid-like codes support the navigation of abstract social space in the human brain.

People form impressions about others during daily social encounters and infer personality traits from others' behaviors. Such trait inference is thought to rely on two universal dimensions: competence and warmth. These two dimensions can be used to construct a 'social cognitive map' organizing massive information obtained from social encounters efficiently. Originating from spatial cognition, the neural codes supporting the representation and navigation of spatial cognitive maps have been widely studied. Recent studies suggest similar neural mechanism subserves the map-like architecture in social cognition as well. Here we investigated how spatial codes operate beyond the physical environment and support the representation and navigation of social cognitive map. We designed a social value space defined by two dimensions of competence and warmth. Behaviorally, participants were able to navigate to a learned location from random starting locations in this abstract social space. At the neural level, we identified the representation of distance in the precuneus, fusiform gyrus, and middle occipital gyrus. We also found partial evidence of grid-like representation patterns in the medial prefrontal cortex and entorhinal cortex. Moreover, the intensity of grid-like response scaled with the performance of navigating in social space and social avoidance trait scores. Our findings suggest a neurocognitive mechanism by which social information can be organized into a structured representation, namely cognitive map and its relevance to social well-being.

Expanding understanding of adolescent neural sensitivity to peers: Using social information processing theory to generate new lines of research.

Adolescence is a period of normative heightened sensitivity to peer influence. Individual differences in susceptibility to peers is related to individual differences in neural sensitivity, particularly in brain regions that support an increasingly greater orientation toward peers. Despite these empirically-established patterns, the more specific psychosocial and socio-cognitive factors associated with individual differences in neural sensitivity to peer influence are just beginning to gain research attention. Specific features of the factors that contribute to how adolescents process social information can inform understanding of the psychological and neurobiological processes involved in what renders adolescents to be more or less susceptible to peer influences. In this paper, we (1) review the literature about peer, family, and broader contextual influences on sensitivity to peers' positive and negative behaviors, (2) outline components of social information processing theories, and (3) discuss features of these models from the perspectives and social cognitive development and social neuroscience. We identify gaps in the current literature that need to be addressed in order to gain a more comprehensive view of adolescent neural sensitivity to peer influence. We conclude by suggesting how future neuroimaging studies can adopt components of this social information processing model to generate new lines of research.

Cerebellum function: The chronometry of social perception.

The posterior cerebellum is emerging as a key structure for social cognition. A new study causally demonstrates its early involvement during emotion perception and functional connectivity with the posterior superior temporal sulcus, a cortical hub of the social brain.

Social cognition in Idiopathic generalised epilepsies.

Social cognition is a set of mental skills necessary to create satisfactory interpersonal relationships and feel a sense of belonging to a social group. Its deficits significantly reduce the quality of life in people with epilepsy. Studies on social cognition and its impairments focus predominantly on people with focal epilepsies. Idiopathic generalised epilepsies are a group of diseases that share similar clinical, prognostic and electrographic characteristics. Despite their typically normal intelligence, people with Idiopathic generalised epilepsies can suffer from learning disabilities and executive dysfunctions. Current studies also suggest social cognition impairments, but their results are inconsistent. This review offers the latest knowledge of social cognition in adults with Idiopathic generalised epilepsies. In addition, we provide an overview of the most frequently used assessment methods. We explain possible reasons for different outcomes and discuss future research perspectives.

Children's developing ability to recognize deceptive use of true information.

The strategic use of deliberate omissions, conveying true but selective information for deceptive purposes, is a prevalent and pernicious disinformation tactic. Crucially, its recognition requires engaging in a sophisticated, multi-part social cognitive reasoning process. In two preregistered studies, we investigated the development of children's ability to engage in this process and successfully recognize this form of deception, finding that children even as young as 5 years are capable of doing so, but only with sufficient scaffolding. This work highlights the key role that social cognition plays in the ability to recognize the manipulation techniques that underpin disinformation. It suggests that the interrelated development of pragmatic competence and epistemic vigilance can be harnessed in the design of tools and strategies to help bolster psychological resistance against disinformation in even our youngest citizens-children at the outset of formal education.

Domestic dogs as a comparative model for social neuroscience: Advances and challenges.

Dogs and humans have lived together for thousands of years and share many analogous socio-cognitive skills. Dog neuroimaging now provides insight into the neural bases of these shared social abilities. Here, we summarize key findings from dog fMRI identifying neocortical brain areas implicated in visual social cognition, such as face, body, and emotion perception, as well as action observation in dogs. These findings provide converging evidence that the temporal cortex plays a significant role in visual social cognition in dogs. We further briefly review investigations into the neural base of the dog-human relationship, mainly involving limbic brain regions. We then discuss current challenges in the field, such as statistical power and lack of common template spaces, and how to overcome them. Finally, we argue that the foundation has now been built to investigate and compare the neural bases of more complex socio-cognitive phenomena shared by dogs and humans. This will strengthen and expand the role of the domestic dog as a powerful comparative model species and provide novel insights into the evolutionary roots of social cognition.

Overlapping neural correlates underpin theory of mind and semantic cognition: Evidence from a meta-analysis of 344 functional neuroimaging studies.

Key unanswered questions for cognitive neuroscience include whether social cognition is underpinned by specialised brain regions and to what extent it simultaneously depends on more domain-general systems. Until we glean a better understanding of the full set of contributions made by various systems, theories of social cognition will remain fundamentally limited. In the present study, we evaluate a recent proposal that semantic cognition plays a crucial role in supporting social cognition. While previous brain-based investigations have focused on dissociating these two systems, our primary aim was to assess the degree to which the neural correlates are overlapping, particularly within two key regions, the anterior temporal lobe (ATL) and the temporoparietal junction (TPJ). We focus on activation associated with theory of mind (ToM) and adopt a meta-analytic activation likelihood approach to synthesise a large set of functional neuroimaging studies and compare their results with studies of semantic cognition. As a key consideration, we sought to account for methodological differences across the two sets of studies, including the fact that ToM studies tend to use nonverbal stimuli while the semantics literature is dominated by language-based tasks. Overall, we observed consistent overlap between the two sets of brain regions, especially in the ATL and TPJ. This supports the claim that tasks involving ToM draw upon more general semantic retrieval processes. We also identified activation specific to ToM in the right TPJ, bilateral anterior mPFC, and right precuneus. This is consistent with the view that, nested amongst more domain-general systems, there is specialised circuitry that is tuned to social processes.

Sexual objectification versus empowerment: Examining the effects of sexualized women's facial expression on viewers' evaluations of social cognition and self-objectification.

Objectification scholarship highlights how traditional media portrayals oftentimes direct attention toward women's bodies and away from their faces which communicate important social information. This study sought to investigate how thin-ideal, white women's facial expression potentially attenuates the negative effects of appearing in a sexually objectifying manner using validated imagery. In a 2 × 3 between-subjects experiment (N = 1001 U.S. adult women; Mage = 42.56, SDage = 12.72), portraits of women varied in their sexualization (non-sexualized vs. sexualized) and facial expression (neutral expression, low-intensity smiling, high-intensity smiling) to better understand how these factors influence dimensions of social cognition (competence, warmth, authenticity), self-promotional attributions, and viewers' own self-objectification. Results revealed that viewers rated sexualized (vs. non-sexualized) women lower in competence and authenticity, as well ascribed more self-promotional explanations for their behavior. Moreover, exposure to sexualized women heightened viewers' self-objectification, regardless of facial expression. Results also indicated that smiling intensity positively influenced viewers' ratings of social cognition. However, there is little evidence that smiling intensity overrides the negative effects of sexualization. Implications for the sexual objectification of women are discussed.

Social cognition correlates of self-management behaviors in patients with familial hypercholesterolemia (FH): A meta-analytic review.

OBJECTIVE: Familial Hypercholesterolemia (FH) is an inherited disorder leading to increased risk of premature atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. This risk can be ameliorated through adherence to pharmacological treatment and salient lifestyle behaviors (e.g., physical activity participation, healthy eating). Identifying theory-based, modifiable determinants of these behaviors may inform behavioral interventions promoting participation in FH self-management behaviors. We aimed to identify the belief-based social cognition constructs uniquely associated with intentions to perform, and actual participation in, FH self-management behaviors in the extant research. METHOD: A systematic database search identified studies (k = 9, N = 1394) reporting relations between social cognition theory constructs and intention toward, or actual participation in, self-management behaviors in FH patients. As no studies examining prospectively-measured behaviors were identified, we tested relations among social cognition constructs, intentions, and past FH-self-management behavior using random effects multi-level meta-analysis and meta-analytic structural equation modelling. RESULTS: We found non-zero averaged correlations among the key social cognition constructs (attitudes, norms, risk perceptions, self-efficacy), intentions, and past behavior. A meta-analytic structural equation model indicated non-zero averaged direct effects of attitudes, norms, self-efficacy, and past behavior on FH self-management behavioral intentions. There were also non-zero averaged indirect effects of past behavior on intentions mediated by the social cognition constructs. CONCLUSION: Findings provide evidence to support the proposed model and highlight the importance of personal, normative, and capacity related beliefs and past experience as unique correlates of intentions to perform FH self-management behaviors. The model may signal potential constructs that could be targeted in behavioral interventions to promote participation in FH self-management behaviors.

A multimodal interface for speech perception: the role of the left superior temporal sulcus in social cognition and autism.

Multimodal integration is crucial for human interaction, in particular for social communication, which relies on integrating information from various sensory modalities. Recently a third visual pathway specialized in social perception was proposed, which includes the right superior temporal sulcus (STS) playing a key role in processing socially relevant cues and high-level social perception. Importantly, it has also recently been proposed that the left STS contributes to audiovisual integration of speech processing. In this article, we propose that brain areas along the right STS that support multimodal integration for social perception and cognition can be considered homologs to those in the left, language-dominant hemisphere, sustaining multimodal integration of speech and semantic concepts fundamental for social communication. Emphasizing the significance of the left STS in multimodal integration and associated processes such as multimodal attention to socially relevant stimuli, we underscore its potential relevance in comprehending neurodevelopmental conditions characterized by challenges in social communication such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Further research into this left lateral processing stream holds the promise of enhancing our understanding of social communication in both typical development and ASD, which may lead to more effective interventions that could improve the quality of life for individuals with atypical neurodevelopment.

Different neuropsychological and brain volumetric profiles in a pair of identical twins with myotonic dystrophy type 1 indicate a non-genetic modulation of clinical phenotype.

We report on genetic and environmental modulation of social cognition abilities and brain volume correlates in two monozygotic twins (Twin1 and Twin2) with genetically confirmed myotonic dystrophy-type1 who grew up in different environmental settings. They both underwent neuropsychological assessment (i.e., Intelligent Quotient [IQ], theory of mind, emotion recognition tests), and MRI scanning to evaluate regional brain volumetrics compared to 10 gender and sex-matched healthy controls. Against a normal IQ level in both patients, Twin1 was more impaired in emotional processing and Twin2 in cognitive aspects of social cognition. Both patients showed grey matter (GM) atrophy in Brodmann Areas 23/31 (BA23/31) and BA7 bilaterally, while Twin2 showed additional GM loss in right BA46. Both patients showed a similar pattern of white matter atrophy involving the thalamus, basal ganglia, and uncinate fasciculus. White matter atrophy appeared to be mostly driven by genetics, while grey matter volumes appeared associated with different impairments in social cognition and possibly modulated by environment.

Physical Activity Levels and Social Cognitive Theory Correlates among Adults with Crohn's Disease: Preliminary Results from a Cross-Sectional Analysis.

There is increasing research and clinical interest in physical activity (PA) as an adjuvant therapy for improving health outcomes among persons with Crohn's disease. To date, little is known regarding PA behavior and its cognitive and behavioral correlates in Crohn's disease. Thus, we assessed self-reported PA and its social cognitive theory (SCT) correlates in a sample of persons with Crohn's disease. Data on demographic and clinical characteristics, disease activity, leisure-time PA, and SCT variables were collected from 30 participants with Crohn's disease (90% White, 60% female) through an online survey. SCT variables assessed included exercise self-efficacy, social support, outcome expectations, goal setting, and planning. Analyses involved comparing PA levels and SCT survey scores using independent sample t-tests and non-parametric bivariate correlations. The majority of participants were in clinical remission (60%) and over half (57%) were classified as physically active, yet the mean PA level was lower than normative values for adults. Females (n = 18) and participants who reported previous surgery for Crohn's disease (n = 18) were almost twice as physically active as male participants and those without a history of Crohn's disease-related surgery, respectively (p's < 0.05). Overall, participants who reported greater exercise goal setting behaviors had higher levels of PA (rs = 0.34; p < 0.05). These findings highlight lower overall levels of PA in persons with Crohn's disease, and exercise goal setting represents a potential target of behavior change interventions for increasing PA in this population.

Weighing the role of social cognition and executive functioning in pragmatics in the schizophrenia spectrum: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Pragmatic impairment is diffused in schizophrenia spectrum disorders, but the literature still debates its neurocognitive underpinnings. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to investigate the neurocognitive correlates of pragmatic disorders in schizophrenia and determine the weight of social cognition and executive functioning on such disorders. Of the 2,668 records retrieved from the literature, 16 papers were included in the systematic review, mostly focused on non-literal meanings and discourse production in schizophrenia. Ten studies were included in the meta-analysis: pragmatics was moderately associated with both social cognition and executive functions (especially inhibition), but the link with social cognition was stronger. The mediation analysis showed that social cognition mediated the relationship between executive functions and pragmatics. Based on this, we proposed a hierarchical neurocognitive model where pragmatics stems from social cognition, while executive functions are the fertile ground supporting the other two domains, and we discuss its theoretical and clinical implications.

Atypical brain structural connectivity and social cognition in childhood maltreatment and peer victimisation.

BACKGROUND: Childhood maltreatment (CM) is associated with neurobiological aberrations and atypical social cognition. Few studies have examined the neural effects of another common early-life interpersonal stressor, namely peer victimisation (PV). This study examines the associations between tract aberrations and childhood interpersonal stress from caregivers (CM) and peers (PV), and explores how the observed tract alterations are in turn related to affective theory of mind (ToM). METHODS: Data from 107 age-and gender-matched youths (34 CM [age = 19.9 ± 1.68; 36%male], 35 PV [age = 19.9 ± 1.65; 43%male], 38 comparison subjects [age = 20.0 ± 1.66; 42%male] were analysed using tractography and whole-brain tract-based spatial statistics (TBSS). RESULTS: At the whole-brain level using TBSS, the CM group had higher fractional anisotropy (FA) than the PV and comparison groups in a cluster of predominantly limbic and corpus callosal pathways. Segmented tractography indicated the CM group had higher FA in right uncinate fasciculus compared to both groups. They also had smaller right anterior thalamic radiation (ATR) tract volume than the comparison group and higher left ATR FA than the PV group, with these metrics associated with higher emotional abuse and enhanced affective ToM within the CM group, respectively. The PV group had lower inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus FA than the other two groups, which was related to lower affective ToM within the PV group. CONCLUSION: Findings suggest that exposure to early-life stress from caregivers and peers are differentially associated with alterations of neural pathways connecting the frontal, temporal and occipital cortices involved in cognitive and affective control, with possible links to their atypical social cognition.

Individual quality, insecure organizational attachment, and formalistic task completion: Social cognitive perspective.

Formalistic tasks are widely utilized in modern companies due to their ability to increase productivity and contribute to the achievement of corporate goals at a lower cost. However, these tasks are often meet with resistance from individuals because they do not provide direct short-term rewards for their efforts. Drawing on social cognitive theory, this study examined the influence of individual quality and organizational attachment on the completion of formalistic tasks. To address this, the study conducted a questionnaire survey to collect data from 602 Chinese respondents and built a structural equation model for data analysis. Through empirical research, the study confirmed the positive role of individual quality, including knowledge and personality, in the completion of formalistic tasks. Furthermore, the study proved that avoidant attachment could significantly weaken the effect of some components of individual quality on formalistic task completion. This paper is the first to reveal the influence of individual and environmental factors on individuals' completion of formalistic tasks, progressing from bottom to top. The implications of these results are discussed.

Forming Evaluations of Moral Character: How Are Multiple Pieces of Information Prioritized and Integrated?

Evaluating other people's moral character is a crucial social cognitive task. However, the cognitive processes by which people seek out, prioritize, and integrate multiple pieces of character-relevant information have not been studied empirically. The first aim of this research was to examine which character traits are considered most important when forming an impression of a person's overall moral character. The second aim was to understand how differing levels of trait expression affect overall character judgments. Four preregistered studies and one supplemental study (total N = 720), using five different measures of importance and sampling undergraduates, online workers, and community members, found that our participants placed the most importance on the traits honest, helpful, compassionate, loyal, and responsible. Also, when integrating the information that they have learned, our participants seemed to engage in a simple averaging process in which all available, relevant information is combined in a linear fashion to form an overall evaluation of moral character. This research provides new insights into the cognitive processes by which evaluations of moral character are formed.

Neuroanatomical correlates of peripersonal space: bridging the gap between perception, action, emotion and social cognition.

Peripersonal space (PPS) is a construct referring to the portion of space immediately surrounding our bodies, where most of the interactions between the subject and the environment, including other individuals, take place. Decades of animal and human neuroscience research have revealed that the brain holds a separate representation of this region of space: this distinct spatial representation has evolved to ensure proper relevance to stimuli that are close to the body and prompt an appropriate behavioral response. The neural underpinnings of such construct have been thoroughly investigated by different generations of studies involving anatomical and electrophysiological investigations in animal models, and, recently, neuroimaging experiments in human subjects. Here, we provide a comprehensive anatomical overview of the anatomical circuitry underlying PPS representation in the human brain. Gathering evidence from multiple areas of research, we identified cortical and subcortical regions that are involved in specific aspects of PPS encoding.We show how these regions are part of segregated, yet integrated functional networks within the brain, which are in turn involved in higher-order integration of information. This wide-scale circuitry accounts for the relevance of PPS encoding in multiple brain functions, including not only motor planning and visuospatial attention but also emotional and social cognitive aspects. A complete characterization of these circuits may clarify the derangements of PPS representation observed in different neurological and neuropsychiatric diseases.

Early identification of autism spectrum disorder based on machine learning with eye-tracking data.

BACKGROUND: Early identification of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) improves long-term outcomes, yet significant diagnostic delays persist. METHODS: A retrospective cohort of 449 children (ASD: 246, typically developing [TD]: 203) was used for model development. Eye-movement data were collected from the participants watching videos that featured eye-tracking paradigms for assessing social and non-social cognition. Five machine learning algorithms, namely random forest, support vector machine, logistic regression, artificial neural network, and extreme gradient boosting, were trained to classify children with ASD and TD. The best-performing algorithm was selected to build the final model which was further evaluated in a prospective cohort of 80 children. The Shapley values interpreted important eye-tracking features. RESULTS: Random forest outperformed other algorithms during model development and achieved an area under the curve of 0.849 (< 3 years: 0.832, ≥ 3 years: 0.868) on the external validation set. Of the ten most important eye-tracking features, three measured social cognition, and the rest were related to non-social cognition. A deterioration in model performance was observed using only the social or non-social cognition-related eye-tracking features. LIMITATIONS: The sample size of this study, although larger than that of existing studies of ASD based on eye-tracking data, was still relatively small compared to the number of features. CONCLUSIONS: Machine learning models based on eye-tracking data have the potential to be cost- and time-efficient digital tools for the early identification of ASD. Eye-tracking phenotypes related to social and non-social cognition play an important role in distinguishing children with ASD from TD children.