RESUMEN
In recent decades, there has been a consistent decline in semen quality across the globe, with environmental pollution emerging as the predominant factor. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) have garnered considerable attention due to their potent biological toxicity and resistance to natural degradation. Within this class of pollutants, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and halogenated aromatic hydrocarbons (HAHs) have been identified as detrimental agents that can disrupt cellular physiological functions by activating aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR). However, the precise role of AhR in the adverse effects of environmental pollutants on male mammalian fertility remains incompletely understood. This article provides a comprehensive review of the impact of various environmental pollutants, specifically PAHs such as benzo[a]pyrene, 3-methylcholanthrene, and 7,12-dimethylbenzo[a]anthracene, HAHs including 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls, polybrominated diphenyl ethers, and the pollutant complex PM2.5, as well as cigarette smoke condensates, on male mammalian reproductive function. Additionally, this review focuses on the role of the AhR in mediating these effects. The objective of this review is to elucidate the involvement of AhR in the regulation of male mammalian fertility, thereby offering insights for prospective investigations into the interplay between AhR and male reproductive function, as well as the etiology of idiopathic male infertility in clinic.
Asunto(s)
Contaminantes Ambientales , Infertilidad Masculina , Hidrocarburos Policíclicos Aromáticos , Receptores de Hidrocarburo de Aril , Receptores de Hidrocarburo de Aril/metabolismo , Masculino , Animales , Contaminantes Ambientales/toxicidad , Contaminantes Ambientales/efectos adversos , Humanos , Hidrocarburos Policíclicos Aromáticos/efectos adversos , Hidrocarburos Policíclicos Aromáticos/toxicidad , Infertilidad Masculina/inducido químicamente , Infertilidad Masculina/etiología , Infertilidad Masculina/metabolismo , Bifenilos Policlorados/efectos adversos , Bifenilos Policlorados/toxicidad , Fertilidad/efectos de los fármacos , Éteres Difenilos Halogenados/efectos adversos , Éteres Difenilos Halogenados/toxicidad , Contaminantes Orgánicos Persistentes/efectos adversos , Contaminantes Orgánicos Persistentes/metabolismoRESUMEN
PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Evidence suggests neurotoxicity of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) during sensitive periods of development. We present an overview of pediatric population neuroimaging studies that examined brain influences of EDC exposure during prenatal period and childhood. RECENT FINDINGS: We found 46 studies that used magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to examine brain influences of EDCs. These studies showed associations of prenatal exposure to phthalates, organophosphate pesticides (OPs), polyaromatic hydrocarbons and persistent organic pollutants with global and regional brain structural alterations. Few studies suggested alteration in functional MRI associated with prenatal OP exposure. However, studies on other groups of EDCs, such as bisphenols, and those that examined childhood exposure were less conclusive. These findings underscore the potential profound and lasting effects of prenatal EDC exposure on brain development, emphasizing the need for better regulation and strategies to reduce exposure and mitigate impacts. More studies are needed to examine the influence of postnatal exposure to EDC on brain imaging.
Asunto(s)
Encéfalo , Disruptores Endocrinos , Neuroimagen , Efectos Tardíos de la Exposición Prenatal , Humanos , Disruptores Endocrinos/toxicidad , Niño , Neuroimagen/métodos , Adolescente , Efectos Tardíos de la Exposición Prenatal/inducido químicamente , Femenino , Embarazo , Encéfalo/diagnóstico por imagen , Encéfalo/efectos de los fármacos , Encéfalo/crecimiento & desarrollo , Imagen por Resonancia Magnética , Exposición a Riesgos Ambientales/efectos adversos , Preescolar , Contaminantes Orgánicos Persistentes/toxicidad , Contaminantes Orgánicos Persistentes/efectos adversos , Contaminantes Ambientales/toxicidad , Plaguicidas/toxicidad , Ácidos Ftálicos/toxicidadRESUMEN
Objective: The aim was to evaluate the possible association between some endocrine disruptive chemicals and thyroid cancer (TC) in an Italian case-control cohort. Methods: We enrolled 112 TC patients and 112 sex- and age-matched controls without known thyroid diseases. Per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), poly-chlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (4,4'-DDT and 4,4'-DDE) were measured in the serum by liquid or gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Unconditional logistic regression, Bayesan kernel machine regression and weighted quantile sum models were used to estimate the association between TC and pollutants' levels, considered individually or as mixture. BRAFV600E mutation was assessed by standard methods. Results: The detection of perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA) was positively correlated to TC (OR = 2.03, 95% CI: 1.10-3.75, P = 0.02), while a negative association was found with perfluorohexanesulfonic acid (PFHxS) levels (OR = 0.63, 95% CI: 0.41-0.98, P = 0.04). Moreover, perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) was positively associated with the presence of thyroiditis, while PFHxS and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) with higher levels of presurgical thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). PFHxS, PFOS, PFNA, and PFDA were correlated with less aggressive TC, while poly-chlorinated biphenyls (PCB-105 and PCB-118) with larger and more aggressive tumors. Statistical models showed a negative association between pollutants' mixture and TC. BRAF V600E mutations were associated with PCB-153, PCB-138, and PCB-180. Conclusion: Our study suggests, for the first time in a case-control population, that exposure to some PFAS and PCBs associates with TC and some clinical and molecular features. On the contrary, an inverse correlation was found with both PFHxS and pollutants' mixture, likely due to a potential reverse causality.
Asunto(s)
Ácidos Alcanesulfónicos , Disruptores Endocrinos , Fluorocarburos , Contaminantes Orgánicos Persistentes , Bifenilos Policlorados , Neoplasias de la Tiroides , Humanos , Estudios de Casos y Controles , Fluorocarburos/sangre , Fluorocarburos/efectos adversos , Femenino , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Disruptores Endocrinos/sangre , Disruptores Endocrinos/efectos adversos , Neoplasias de la Tiroides/epidemiología , Neoplasias de la Tiroides/sangre , Neoplasias de la Tiroides/inducido químicamente , Neoplasias de la Tiroides/genética , Bifenilos Policlorados/sangre , Bifenilos Policlorados/efectos adversos , Ácidos Alcanesulfónicos/sangre , Adulto , Contaminantes Orgánicos Persistentes/efectos adversos , Contaminantes Orgánicos Persistentes/sangre , Anciano , Diclorodifenil Dicloroetileno/sangre , Ácidos Decanoicos/sangre , Ácidos Decanoicos/efectos adversos , DDT/sangre , DDT/efectos adversos , Italia/epidemiología , Caprilatos/sangre , Caprilatos/efectos adversos , Proteínas Proto-Oncogénicas B-raf/genética , Ácidos Grasos/sangre , Ácidos Sulfónicos/sangre , Mutación , Exposición a Riesgos Ambientales/efectos adversosRESUMEN
We aimed to explore the relationship of adipose tissue concentrations of some persistent organic pollutants (POPs) with the risk of endometriosis and the endometriotic tissue expression profile of genes related to the endometriosis-related epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) process. This case-control study enrolled 109 women (34 cases and 75 controls) between January 2018 and March 2020. Adipose tissue samples and endometriotic tissues were intraoperatively collected to determine concentrations of nine POPs and the gene expression profiles of 36 EMT-related genes, respectively. Associations of POPs with endometriosis risk were explored with multivariate logistic regression, while the relationship between exposure and gene expression profiles was assessed through Spearman correlation or Mann-Whitney U tests. After adjustment, increased endometriosis risk was associated with p,p'-DDT, PCB-180, and ΣPCBs. POP exposure was also associated with reduced gene expression levels of the CLDN7 epithelial marker and increased levels of the ITGB2 mesenchymal marker and a variety of EMT promoters (HMGA1, HOXA10, FOXM1, DKK1, CCR1, TNFRSF1B, RRM2, ANG, ANGPT1, and ESR1). Our findings indicate that exposure to POPs may increase the risk of endometriosis and might have a role in the endometriosis-related EMT development, contributing to the disease onset and progression. Further studies are warranted to corroborate these findings.
Asunto(s)
Endometriosis , Exposición a Riesgos Ambientales , Transición Epitelial-Mesenquimal , Contaminantes Orgánicos Persistentes , Endometriosis/genética , Endometriosis/patología , Endometriosis/inducido químicamente , Endometriosis/metabolismo , Humanos , Femenino , Transición Epitelial-Mesenquimal/genética , Adulto , Exposición a Riesgos Ambientales/efectos adversos , Estudios de Casos y Controles , Contaminantes Orgánicos Persistentes/efectos adversos , Tejido Adiposo/metabolismo , Tejido Adiposo/patología , Endometrio/metabolismo , Endometrio/patología , Endometrio/efectos de los fármacos , Factores de RiesgoRESUMEN
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) can disrupt the thyroid hormone system in humans. We assessed the associations of several POPs with serum thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) and thyroid-stimulating hormone, and investigated the modulating effects of sex, menopausal status, and age on these associations, in a subgroup of the adult population (n = 1250) from the Korean National Environmental Health Survey. PCB105 and PCB118 were negatively associated with total T4 in premenopausal females and males aged <50, whereas the associations were insignificant in other groups. PCB180, p,p'-DDE, and p,p'-DDT showed positive associations with total T3 in postmenopausal females; however, among males aged ≥50, PCB118, PCB138, and p,p'-DDE showed negative associations with total T3. The effects of exposure to multiple POPs were examined in multi-factor analyses. Factor 2 comprised PCB52, hexachlorobenzene, and BDE-47 was associated with an increase in free T4 in premenopausal females (ß = 0.015, p = 0.024), while Factor 1, which contained most POPs, was associated with a change in total T3 in postmenopausal females (ß = 0.032, p = 0.040) and males aged ≥50 (ß = -0.039, p = 0.023). Changes in total T4 or total T3 could be explained by differences in thyroxine-binding globulin (TBG) and peripheral deiodinase activity (GD). Negative associations of TBG with PCB105 in premenopausal females and PCB153 in males aged <50 may mediate the effect of decreasing total T4. PCB180, p,p'-DDE, p,p'-DDT, and Factor 1 were positively associated with GD, which is consistent with an increased total T3 in postmenopausal females. PCB118 was negatively associated with GD and total T3 in males aged ≥50. BDE-47 and ß-hexachlorocyclohexane were associated with thyroid autoantibodies in premenopausal females and males aged <50. Our observations suggest that the thyroid-disrupting effects of POPs may differ by sex, sex hormonal status, and age, and may be mediated by TBG and GD.
Asunto(s)
Contaminantes Ambientales , Yoduro Peroxidasa , Hormonas Tiroideas , Globulina de Unión a Tiroxina , Adulto , Estudios Transversales , DDT/efectos adversos , Diclorodifenil Dicloroetileno/efectos adversos , Contaminantes Ambientales/efectos adversos , Femenino , Humanos , Yoduro Peroxidasa/metabolismo , Masculino , Menopausia , Persona de Mediana Edad , Contaminantes Orgánicos Persistentes/efectos adversos , Bifenilos Policlorados/efectos adversos , República de Corea , Hormonas Tiroideas/sangre , Globulina de Unión a Tiroxina/análisisRESUMEN
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) can reach the fetal brain and contribute to developmental neurotoxicity. To explore the distribution of POPs to the fetal brain, we exposed chicken embryos to a POP mixture, containing 29 different compounds with concentrations based on blood levels measured in the Scandinavian human population. The mixture was injected into the allantois at embryonic day 13 (E13), aiming at a theoretical concentration of 10 times human blood levels. POPs concentrations in the brain were measured at 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 6, 24, 48, and 72â¯h after administration. Twenty-seven of the individual compounds were detected during at least one of the time-points analyzed. Generally, the concentrations of most of the measured compounds were within the order of magnitude of those reported in human brain samples. Differences in the speed of distribution to the brain were observed between the per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), which have protein binding potential, and the lipophilic polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and brominated flame retardants (BFRs). Based on pharmacokinetic modeling, PFASs were best described by a one compartment model. PFASs displayed relatively slow elimination (Kel) and persisted at high levels in the brain. Lipophilic OCPs and PCBs could be fitted to a 2-compartment model. These showed high levels in the brain relative to the dose administrated as calculated by area under the curve (AUC)/Dose. Altogether, our study showed that chicken is a suitable model to explore the distribution of POPs into the developing brain at concentrations which are relevant for humans.
Asunto(s)
Encéfalo/efectos de los fármacos , Contaminantes Orgánicos Persistentes/efectos adversos , Animales , Encéfalo/embriología , Encéfalo/crecimiento & desarrollo , Embrión de Pollo , Relación Dosis-Respuesta a Droga , Desarrollo Embrionario/efectos de los fármacosRESUMEN
High levels of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and heavy metals are found in Arctic populations. POP and heavy metals are linked to impaired cognitive development. This study examined associations between prenatal POP and metals exposure and problematic child behavior using the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). POPs and metals were measured in 102 pregnant Greenlandic women. During follow-up at 3-5 years, parents answered an assisted questionnaire including children's SDQ scores. Associations were analyzed using linear and logistic regression analyses and adjusted for maternal plasma cotinine, educational level and age at delivery. In the adjusted analyses, the medium tertile of hexachlorobenzene (ß = 3.06, p = 0.010), ß-hexachlorocyclohexane (ß = 3.58, p = 0.004) and trans-nonachlor (ß = 2.06, p = 0.082) were positively associated with SDQ scores. The continuous cis-nonachlor (OR = 1.09, p = 0.079), dichloro-diphenyl-dichloroethylene (OR = 1.01, p = 0.077), trans-nonachlor (OR = 1.01, p = 0.091), and sum Organochlorine-Pesticides (OR = 1.00, p = 0.094) were positively associated with abnormal SDQ score and the continuous mirex (OR = 1.28, p = 0.096), oxychlordane (OR = 1.04, p = 0.066), and trans-nonachlor (OR = 1.02, p = 0.071) with abnormal hyperactivity score. We found no consistent evidence of associations between polychlorinated biphenyls, perfluoroalkylated substances and heavy metals and problematic behavior. Prenatal organochlorine pesticide exposure associated significantly with problematic behavior in 3-5 year old children.
Asunto(s)
Conducta Infantil , Exposición a Riesgos Ambientales/efectos adversos , Exposición Materna/efectos adversos , Metales Pesados/efectos adversos , Contaminantes Orgánicos Persistentes/efectos adversos , Efectos Tardíos de la Exposición Prenatal , Biomarcadores/sangre , Niño , Trastornos de la Conducta Infantil/epidemiología , Trastornos de la Conducta Infantil/etiología , Preescolar , Estudios de Cohortes , Femenino , Groenlandia/epidemiología , Humanos , Masculino , Oportunidad Relativa , Embarazo , Vigilancia en Salud Pública , Encuestas y CuestionariosRESUMEN
Persistent organic pollutants(POPs) are suggested to be potential risk factors for gestational diabetes mellitus(GDM). We examined the hypothesis that the aryl hydrocarbon receptor trans-activating(AhRT) activity, a potential biomarker for the presence of POPs, could be a GDM risk factor in pregnant women. A total of 390 GDM and 100 normal pregnant(non-GDM) subjects in the Korea National Diabetes Program cohort voluntarily participated. We measured AhRT activity and concentrations of ATP and reactive oxygen in the serum collected at the screening of the participants for GDM using recombinant Hepa1c1c7 cells. Odds ratios(ORs) and 95% confidence intervals(CIs) were estimated using multivariable logistic regression models. The sensitivity and specificity of AhRT activity for GDM diagnostics were measured by receiver operating characteristic(ROC) analysis. Body mass index at pre-pregnancy and delivery and systolic blood pressure were significantly higher in the GDM group. AhRT activity was higher, and ATP concentrations were lower in the GDM group than the non-GDM group(P < 0.0001). AhRT activity was significantly higher in the GDM group(OR 29.3, 95% CI 10.9-79.1) compared with non-GDM(P < 0.0001). Serum glucose concentration at 1 h after a 50 g glucose challenge(glucose-50) was moderately correlated with AhRT activity(r2 = 0.387) and negatively correlated with ATP production(r2 = -0.650). In the ROC curve, AhRT activity had 70.9% sensitivity and 90.0% specificity for glucose-50, a GDM screening method. In conclusion, this study suggests that serum AhRT activity is positively associated with the risk of GDM.
Asunto(s)
Factores de Transcripción con Motivo Hélice-Asa-Hélice Básico/genética , Diabetes Gestacional/diagnóstico , Diabetes Gestacional/genética , Exposición a Riesgos Ambientales/efectos adversos , Contaminantes Orgánicos Persistentes/efectos adversos , Receptores de Hidrocarburo de Aril/genética , Adenosina Trifosfato/sangre , Adulto , Factores de Transcripción con Motivo Hélice-Asa-Hélice Básico/sangre , Biomarcadores/sangre , Glucemia/metabolismo , Presión Sanguínea , Índice de Masa Corporal , Estudios de Casos y Controles , Diabetes Gestacional/sangre , Diabetes Gestacional/inducido químicamente , Femenino , Expresión Génica , Hemoglobina Glucada/genética , Hemoglobina Glucada/metabolismo , Humanos , Resistencia a la Insulina , Oportunidad Relativa , Embarazo , Curva ROC , Especies Reactivas de Oxígeno/sangre , Receptores de Hidrocarburo de Aril/sangre , Factores de RiesgoRESUMEN
Poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a class of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) reported to alter thyroid function. Iodide uptake by thyroid follicular cells, an early step in the synthesis of thyroid hormones, is a potential target for thyroid disruption by EDCs. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the acute effects of perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorooctane carboxylic acid (PFOA), two of the most abundant PFAS in the environment, on iodide transport by thyroid follicular cells in vitro. Dynamic changes in intracellular iodide concentration were monitored by live cell imaging using YFP-H148Q/I152, a genetically encoded fluorescent iodide biosensor. PFOS, but not PFOA, acutely and reversibly inhibited iodide accumulation by FRTL-5 thyrocytes, as well as by HEK-293 cells transiently expressing the Sodium Iodide Symporter (NIS). PFOS prevented NIS-mediated iodide uptake and reduced intracellular iodide concentration in iodide-containing cells, mimicking the effect of the NIS inhibitor perchlorate. PFOS did not affect iodide efflux from thyroid cells. The results of this study suggest that disruption of iodide homeostasis in thyroid cells may be a potential mechanism for anti-thyroid health effects of PFOS. The study also confirms the utility of the YFP-H148Q/I152 cell-based assay to screen environmental PFAS, and other EDCs, for anti-thyroid activity.
Asunto(s)
Ácidos Alcanesulfónicos/efectos adversos , Fluorocarburos/efectos adversos , Yoduros/metabolismo , Contaminantes Orgánicos Persistentes/efectos adversos , Células Epiteliales Tiroideas/efectos de los fármacos , Animales , Transporte Biológico/efectos de los fármacos , Células Cultivadas , Disruptores Endocrinos/efectos adversos , Células HEK293 , Humanos , Percloratos/efectos adversos , Ratas , Simportadores/metabolismo , Células Epiteliales Tiroideas/metabolismo , Glándula Tiroides/efectos de los fármacos , Glándula Tiroides/metabolismoRESUMEN
In light of the relatively ignored role of paternal influences on offspring development and increasing societal concerns regarding possible health consequences of chemical exposures, our team has addressed the overall hypothesis that environmentally-relevant levels of contaminants have long-lasting effects that are transmitted through the paternal lineage. This review focuses on our research examining the impact of developmental exposure to toxicants and nutrients on the phenotype and epigenome of the male and of his subsequent generations. This report is intended to encourage animal andrologists as well as the domestic animal production industry to increase their consideration of the sire's environment in the context of agricultural productivity.
Asunto(s)
Animales Domésticos/fisiología , Ambiente , Epigenoma/efectos de los fármacos , Sustancias Peligrosas/efectos adversos , Fenómenos Fisiológicos Nutricionales de los Animales/efectos de los fármacos , Animales , Animales Domésticos/genética , Femenino , Masculino , Contaminantes Orgánicos Persistentes/efectos adversos , Fenotipo , Reproducción/efectos de los fármacosRESUMEN
Several studies have found aberrant DNA methylation levels in breast cancer cases, but factors influencing DNA methylation patterns and the mechanisms are not well understood. This case-control study evaluated blood methylation level of two repetitive elements and selected breast cancer-related genes in relation to breast cancer risk, and the associations with serum level of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and breast cancer risk factors in Greenlandic Inuit. DNA methylation was determined using bisulphite pyrosequencing in blood from 74 breast cancer cases and 80 controls. Using first tertile as reference, the following was observed. Positive associations for ATM in second tertile (OR: 2.33, 95% CI: 1.04; 5.23) and ESR2 in third tertile (OR: 2.22, 95% CI: 0.97; 5.05) suggest an increased breast cancer risk with high DNA methylation. LINE-1 methylation was lower in cases than controls. In third tertile (OR: 0.42, 95% CI: 0.18; 0.98), associations suggest in accordance with the literature an increased risk of breast cancer with LINE-1 hypomethylation. Among controls, significant associations between methylation levels and serum level of POPs and breast cancer risk factors (age, body mass index, cotinine level) were found. Thus, breast cancer risk factors and POPs may alter the risk through changes in methylation levels; further studies are needed to elucidate the mechanisms.
Asunto(s)
Neoplasias de la Mama/genética , ADN/efectos de los fármacos , Exposición a Riesgos Ambientales/efectos adversos , Contaminantes Orgánicos Persistentes/efectos adversos , Adulto , Anciano , Estudios de Casos y Controles , Metilación de ADN , Femenino , Groenlandia , Humanos , Inuk , Persona de Mediana Edad , Contaminantes Orgánicos Persistentes/sangre , Factores de RiesgoRESUMEN
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) constitute a relevant part of environmental pollution. POPs are chemical compounds that persist for a long time in the environment, bio-accumulate in the human body and determine significant adverse consequences to human health. The characteristics of these substances are lipo-affinity, semi-volatility and resistance to the degradation processes. Results deriving from several different studies attest that exposure to the main classes of POPs results in multiple toxic effects on humans and experimental animal models. Among the various alterations caused by exposition to and bio-accumulation of POPs, there are abnormalities in tooth formation and related hard dental tissue structure, especially enamel. This review aimed to describe the close association between the exposure of these compounds during the development of the tooth germ and the occurrence of tooth structural anomalies. Indeed, structural defects of the enamel have as possible consequences higher susceptibility of the tooth to caries disease and higher fragility of the crown to the occlusal trauma.
Asunto(s)
Odontogénesis/efectos de los fármacos , Contaminantes Orgánicos Persistentes/efectos adversos , HumanosRESUMEN
OBJECTIVE: The aim of this paper is to propose a new hypothesis for the role of lipophilic chemical mixtures stored in adipose tissue in the development of dementia. Specifically, we present how the dynamics of these chemicals can explain the unexpected findings from the Action for Health in Diabetes (Look AHEAD) study, which failed to show long-term benefits of intentional weight loss on cognition, despite substantial improvements in many known risk factors for dementia. Moreover, we discuss how the role of obesity in the risk of dementia can change depending on the dynamics of these chemicals in adipose tissue. NEW HYPOTHESIS: Human adipose tissue is widely contaminated with various neurotoxic chemicals. Typical examples are persistent organic pollutants (POPs), strong lipophilic chemicals with long half-lives. Both unintentional and intentional weight loss increases the release of POPs from adipocytes into the circulation. As POPs in the blood can easily reach the brain, the intentional weight-loss group of the Look AHEAD study may have experienced an unappreciated and long-term disadvantage on their cognition. Additionally, POPs may be involved in the link between obesity and dementia, as dysfunctional hypertrophic adipocytes enhance the release of POPs from adipocytes to the circulation through uncontrolled lipolysis. In contrast, metabolically healthy obese people may have a low risk of dementia because the safe storage of POPs in adipose tissue would decrease the amount of POPs reaching the brain. MAJOR CHALLENGES FOR THE HYPOTHESIS: In human studies, there are practical difficulties involved with measuring POPs in the blood, including high costs and complex assays. As the serum concentrations of POPs are continuously affected by weight loss and gain, prospective studies may require serial measurements of POPs. In in-vitro and in-vivo experimental studies, how to simulate the exposure dose, duration, and mixture patterns in humans would be critical. LINKAGE TO OTHER MAJOR THEORIES: Even though POPs are direct neurotoxins at a high dosage, low-dose POPs are mitochondrial toxins. Therefore, chronic exposure to low-dose POPs is linked to known key interrelated mechanisms in the pathogenesis of dementia, such as mitochondrial dysfunction and neuroinflammation.