Navigating conflicts of reproductive rights: Unbundling parenthood and balancing competing interests.

Advances in assisted reproductive technologies can give rise to several ethical challenges. One of these challenges occurs when the reproductive desires of two individuals become incompatible and conflict. To address such conflicts, it is important to unbundle different aspects of (non)parenthood and to recognize the corresponding reproductive rights. This article starts on the premise that the six reproductive rights-the right (not) to be a gestational, genetic, and social parent-are negative rights that do not entail a right to assistance. Since terminating or continuing a pregnancy is a form of assistance, the right (not) to be a gestational parent should enjoy primacy in conflicts. However, while refusing assistance may hinder the reproductive project of another person, "prior assistance" does not entitle someone to violate a reproductive right. Therefore, our analysis provides reasons to argue that someone has a right to unilaterally use cryopreserved embryos or continue the development of an entity in an extracorporeal gestative environment (i.e., ectogestation). Although this could lead to a violation of the right not to be a genetic parent, it does not necessarily entail a violation of the right not to be a social parent.

Ethical, legal, social, and policy issues of ovarian tissue cryopreservation in prepubertal girls: a critical interpretive review.

PURPOSE: Despite the increasing number of childhood cancer survivors, significant advances in ovarian tissue cryopreservation (OTC) technique and medical societies' recommendations, fertility preservation (FP) and FP discussions are not always offered as a standard of care in the pediatric context. The aim of this literature review is to understand what ethical, legal, social, and policy issues may influence the provision of FP by OTC in prepubertal girls with cancer. METHODS: A critical interpretive review of peer-reviewed papers published between 2000 and January 2023 was conducted, guided by the McDougall's version of the critical interpretive synthesis (Dixon-Woods), to capture recurring concepts, principles, and arguments regarding FP by OTC for prepubertal girls. RESULTS: Of 931 potentially relevant papers, 162 were included in our analysis. Data were grouped into seven thematic categories: (1) risks of the procedure, (2) unique decision-making issues in pediatric oncofertility, (3) counseling, (4) cultural and cost issues, and (5) disposition of cryopreserved reproductive tissue. CONCLUSION: This first literature review focusing on ethical, legal, social, and policy issues surrounding OTC in prepubertal girls highlights concerns in the oncofertility debate. Although OTC is no longer experimental as of December 2019, these issues could limit its availability and the child's future reproductive autonomy. This review concludes that specific actions must be provided to enable the offer of FP, such as supporting families' decision-making in this unique and complex context, and providing pediatric patients universal and full access to free or highly subsidized OTC.

Counseling, risks, and ethical considerations of planned oocyte cryopreservation.

The use of planned oocyte cryopreservation for nonmedical need has been steadily increasing, especially since the experimental label on this procedure was lifted nearly 10 years ago. With this rise, patients' desires to postpone or conserve their reproductive potential have become increasingly nuanced, and the need for complex individualized counseling has grown. In addition, there are several ethical considerations, including risks, access, and patient comprehension that must be discussed with patients who are considering this procedure. In this review, we provide an in-depth discussion of these concepts, highlighting the need for individualized and comprehensive counseling that recognizes the gaps in knowledge that remains in this somewhat novel domain.

Research on supernumerary embryos: the challenge of recon- ciling opposing interests and fast-evolving technologies.

ABSTRACT: The paper addresses the issue of the legality and ethical admissi-bility of invasive experiments on embryos and the correlated one of the degree of legal protection and dignity to be recognized for human embryos, particularly in light of the growing importance that scientific research on embryonic stem cells has been gaining from the clinical and biomedical standpoints in the therapeutic treatments of diseases so far considered incurable, in the interest of public health. Furthermore, the issue of experimentation on cryopreserved supernumerary human embryos is still extremely polarizing, which makes it harder to arrive at shared solutions. The author hopes for a broad-ranging debate at the international level, for the ultimate purpose of achieving shared regulatory frameworks.

Disposition of unclaimed embryos: an Ethics Committee opinion.

Programs should create and enforce written policies addressing the designation, retention, and disposal of unclaimed embryos. In the absence of program-specific policies, it is ethically permissible for a program or facility to consider embryos to have been unclaimed if a reasonable period of time has passed since contact with an individual or couple; efforts as outlined in the consent form have been made to contact the individual or couple; and no written instructions from the individual or couple with dispositional control exist concerning disposition. In such cases, programs or facilities may dispose of unclaimed embryos by removing them from storage and thawing without transfer. In the absence of specific written instructions, unclaimed embryos may not be donated to others for reproductive use or be used in research. This statement replaces the American Society for Reproductive Medicine Ethics Committee document "Disposition of Abandoned Embryos" published in 2013.

Consenting and ethical considerations in embryo cryopreservation.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: An emerging body of literature has elucidated the growing burden of surplus embryos left in storage without any clear disposition. An out dated consent process is a significant but easily remedied contributor to this problem. We propose a novel approach to consenting for disposition of surplus embryos. RECENT FINDINGS: Decisional conflicts that stem from the moral status of embryos and from evolving personal values contribute to surplus embryos being left in storage. Barriers to donation of embryos to research or to other patients also discourage embryo disposition decisions. A flawed informed consent process compromises the physician--provider relationship and complicates decision-making. SUMMARY: Centralizing the process of donating embryos to research and to patients would lower barriers to these disposition options. The informed consent protocol must be redesigned as a longitudinal, narrative process compatible with the evolving values and fertility outcomes of patients. Counselors should be integrated into all discussions regarding embryo disposition from the onset of fertility treatment through its conclusion to facilitate the decision-making process.

Elective Egg Freezing for Non-Medical Reasons: Scientific Impact Paper No. 63.

Although a woman's fertility declines markedly in her late-30s and early-40s, gradually more and more women start a family at this stage of their lives, with the average age of childbirth progressively increasing. More women are storing their eggs (oocytes) to give them the potential opportunity to have a baby in the future. Nonetheless, the number of egg freezing cycles accounts for less than 2% of IVF cycles, and the number of cycles using stored eggs is even lower. The technology for freezing eggs changed dramatically about a decade ago with the development of a technique of rapid freezing called vitrification, which gives success rates almost as good as using fresh eggs. The growing use of this technique, and the publicity surrounding how this technique may have been promoted, has led to this paper. It is essential that women are very clearly informed about the likely success rates of egg freezing, particularly as it is entirely provided by the private sector, with the associated concerns of financial costs and inappropriate or inaccurate marketing. Its success is strongly dependent on the age of the woman at the time of freezing her eggs, with much higher success rates in those aged 35 years and under. Current legislation only allows women to store eggs for 10 years, which conflicts with the better success rates when women do so at a younger age. The reasons behind the increase in egg freezing are complex, but the most common reason given by women storing eggs is that they do not have a partner and are concerned that by the time they do find themselves in a relationship within which they wish to start a family, they may not be able to. We conclude that elective egg freezing provides women with an opportunity to take action about the drop in their fertility, but at present most women who are doing this are already in their later 30s when the success rates are limited. We strongly support the need for improved and continuing education of both women and men regarding the decline in female fertility with age.

Cryonics for all?

In fascinating recent work, some philosophers have argued that it would be morally permissible and prudentially rational to sign up for cryonics-if you can afford the price tag of the procedure. In this paper I ask: why not share the elixir of extended life with everyone? Should governments financially support, positively encourage, or even require people to undergo cryonics? From a general principle of beneficence, I construct a formal argument for cryonics promotion policies. I consider the objection that a subset of these policies would violate autonomy, but I argue that-to the contrary-considerations of autonomy weigh in their favour. I then consider objections based on cost and population, but argue that neither is fatal. Finally, I raise the objection that I believe poses the most serious challenge: that those who revive the cryonically preserved might inflict suffering upon them.

A moral argument for frozen human embryo adoption.

Some people (e.g., Drs. Paul and Susan Lim) and, with them, organizations (e.g., the National Embryo Donation Center) believe that, morally speaking, the death of a frozen human embryo is a very bad thing. With such people and organizations in mind, the question to be addressed here is as follows: if one believes that the death of a frozen embryo is a very bad thing, ought, morally speaking, one prevent the death of at least one frozen embryo via embryo adoption? By way of a three-premise argument, one of which is a moral principle first introduced by Peter Singer, my answer to this question is: at least some of those who believe this ought to. (Just who the "some" are is identified in the paper.) If this is correct, then, for said people, preventing the death of a frozen embryo via embryo adoption is not a morally neutral matter; it is, instead, a morally laden one. Specifically, their intentional refusal to prevent the death of a frozen embryo via embryo adoption is, at a minimum, morally criticizable and, arguably, morally forbidden. Either way, it is, to one extent or another, a moral failing.

Fertility preservation in the pediatric cancer patient.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Long-term survival rates from childhood cancers approach 85% with many of these patients now reaching adulthood and facing the consequences of prior cancer treatment including infertility. This highlights the importance of discussing fertility risk and presenting fertility preservation options prior to initiation of cancer treatment. This article reviews the current literature on fertility preservation in adolescents, young adults, and prepubertal patients. RECENT FINDINGS: Sperm banking remains the gold standard for fertility preservation in adolescents and young adults. Testicular sperm extraction and electroejaculation may also be utilized in patients that are unable to produce a semen sample. Fertility preservation options for prepubertal patients remain experimental but recent data illustrate the potential to restore spermatogenesis using spermatogonial stem cells. SUMMARY: Fertility risk and fertility preservation options for pediatric patients should be routinely discussed at the time of cancer diagnosis. Sperm preservation should be routinely offered to adolescents and young adults at risk for infertility from cancer treatment. Preservation of prepubertal spermatogonial stem cells can be offered as an experimental option.

Holding donated human bodies in conservation: A novel interactive safe-keeping system meeting high ethical and safety standards.

"Mortui vivos docent". Learning from donated bodies is widely considered a corner stone in pre-clinical education, advanced clinical training, and scientific progress in medicine. Making such use of dead human bodies must, of course, accord with high ethical standards and legal constraints. Piety and respect towards donors require using their remains (i) for valuable purposes, (ii) with what we call 'practical decency', (iii) in an efficient way, and (iv) with the utmost safety for all parties involved. With regard to these goals, practical aspects of preservation, safekeeping procedures (for up to several years), and complete documentation become of great importance, but have so far only been realized unsatisfactorily. Here, we describe the new Safe-Keeping System-Münster (SKS-Münster) that has been developed and implemented in the Anatomy Department of the University of Münster. Integrated components of the system include a paternoster transport system, a removal station with ventilation and an air barrier, RFID transponder technology, and an easy to use software package allowing the system together to provide all required functions in an unprecedented way.

Life in the cryo-kennel: The 'exceptional' life of frozen pet DNA.

This article employs a feminist science and technology studies perspective to investigate how the cryo-vitality of frozen pet DNA is potentialized and animated. This is accomplished by empirically foregrounding the marketing material and online presence of two genetic pet preservation companies: PerPETuate and ViaGen Pets. While the allure of cryopreservation for pet owners is situated in light of the ability to re-animate and re-entangle biological matter into future (old) pets, the preservation of pet DNA is potentialized through the logics of love, sameness, purity, and kinship. The article shows how preserved dog DNA moves from a rescue discourse in which exceptional kinds of dogs are preserved to a preservation-of-kin discourse in which the preserved pet DNA is narrated in humanist kinship terms. Exploring the ways that pet DNA preservation and culturing is articulated from kin(d) to brand, the study speaks to the human-animal cryo-interface calling for scholarly attention to the emergent businesses in preserving biological material for one's future use.

[Critical analysis on the evolution of ethical norms for the use of assisted reproduction techniques in Brazil]. / Análise crítica sobre a evolução das normas éticas para a utilização das técnicas de reprodução assistida no Brasil.

The Federal Medical Council (FMC) published FMC Resolution No. 1,358/1992 with the aim of adopting ethical standards for the use of Assisted Reproduction Techniques (ART). This resolution was updated in 2010 (CFM No. 1957/2010), in 2013 (CFM No. 2,013/13) and the last update was in 2015 (CFM No. 2.121/2015). The scope of this article is to conduct a critical analysis of the evolution of the ethical norms proposed by FMC for the use of ART in Brazil. A documentary analysis of the text of the four published Resolutions was carried out, in which the ethical standards for the use of ART were described. It was observed that the resolution evolved in relation to the rights of homosexuals, adopted more permissive measures regarding cryopreservation, donation of gametes and embryos and uteruses on loan and lastly authorized some procedures in ART such as postmortem reproduction, donation and shared gestation. From 2013 onwards the resolution gained a liberal character being updated in terms of clinical practice. For the next updates it would be interesting to include procedures in ART not previously addressed such as nuclear and cytoplasmic transfer. The update frequency (every two years) should be kept to the ethical standards enabling the ART to continue evolving together with the advancement of science.

O Conselho Federal de Medicina (CFM) publicou em 1992 a resolução CFM nº 1.358/1992 com o objetivo de adotar normas éticas para utilização das técnicas de Reprodução Assistida (TRA). Esta resolução foi atualizada em 2010 (CFM nº 1.957/2010), em 2013 (CFM Nº 2.013/13) e teve sua última atualização 2015 (CFM nº 2.121/2015). O objetivo desse artigo é fazer uma análise crítica sobre a evolução das normas éticas propostas pelo CFM para a utilização de TRA no Brasil. Foi realizada uma análise documental do texto das quatro Resoluções publicadas onde estão descritas as normas éticas para utilização das TRA. Foi observado que a resolução evoluiu em relação aos direitos dos homossexuais, adotou medidas mais permissivas em relação a criopreservação, doação de gametas e embriões e cessão de útero e por fim autorizou alguns procedimentos em TRA como a reprodução post mortem, doação e gestação compartilhada. A partir de 2013 a resolução ganhou um caráter liberal estando atualizada com a prática clínica. Para as próximas atualizações seria interessante incluir procedimentos em TRA os quais não foram abordados como a transferência nuclear e citoplasmática. A frequência de atualização (a cada dois anos) deve ser mantida para as normas éticas que norteiam a TRA continuar evoluindo juntamente com o avanço da ciência.

Análise crítica sobre a evolução das normas éticas para a utilização das técnicas de reprodução assistida no Brasil / Critical analysis on the evolution of ethical norms for the use of assisted reproduction techniques in Brazil

Resumo O Conselho Federal de Medicina (CFM) publicou em 1992 a resolução CFM nº 1.358/1992 com o objetivo de adotar normas éticas para utilização das técnicas de Reprodução Assistida (TRA). Esta resolução foi atualizada em 2010 (CFM nº 1.957/2010), em 2013 (CFM Nº 2.013/13) e teve sua última atualização 2015 (CFM nº 2.121/2015). O objetivo desse artigo é fazer uma análise crítica sobre a evolução das normas éticas propostas pelo CFM para a utilização de TRA no Brasil. Foi realizada uma análise documental do texto das quatro Resoluções publicadas onde estão descritas as normas éticas para utilização das TRA. Foi observado que a resolução evoluiu em relação aos direitos dos homossexuais, adotou medidas mais permissivas em relação a criopreservação, doação de gametas e embriões e cessão de útero e por fim autorizou alguns procedimentos em TRA como a reprodução post mortem, doação e gestação compartilhada. A partir de 2013 a resolução ganhou um caráter liberal estando atualizada com a prática clínica. Para as próximas atualizações seria interessante incluir procedimentos em TRA os quais não foram abordados como a transferência nuclear e citoplasmática. A frequência de atualização (a cada dois anos) deve ser mantida para as normas éticas que norteiam a TRA continuar evoluindo juntamente com o avanço da ciência.

Abstract The Federal Medical Council (FMC) published FMC Resolution No. 1,358/1992 with the aim of adopting ethical standards for the use of Assisted Reproduction Techniques (ART). This resolution was updated in 2010 (CFM No. 1957/2010), in 2013 (CFM No. 2,013/13) and the last update was in 2015 (CFM No. 2.121/2015). The scope of this article is to conduct a critical analysis of the evolution of the ethical norms proposed by FMC for the use of ART in Brazil. A documentary analysis of the text of the four published Resolutions was carried out, in which the ethical standards for the use of ART were described. It was observed that the resolution evolved in relation to the rights of homosexuals, adopted more permissive measures regarding cryopreservation, donation of gametes and embryos and uteruses on loan and lastly authorized some procedures in ART such as postmortem reproduction, donation and shared gestation. From 2013 onwards the resolution gained a liberal character being updated in terms of clinical practice. For the next updates it would be interesting to include procedures in ART not previously addressed such as nuclear and cytoplasmic transfer. The update frequency (every two years) should be kept to the ethical standards enabling the ART to continue evolving together with the advancement of science.

Chapitre 9. Oncofertilité et jeunes filles prépubères : Un « droit à un avenir ouvert ¼ ?

Chemotherapy and radiotherapy have increased the life expectancy of cancer patients but may cause premature ovarian failure and irreversible loss of fertility. In the context of childhood cancers, it is now acknowledged that possible negative effects of treatment on future reproductive autonomy are a major concern. While a few options are open to patients post-puberty, the only option currently open to prepubescent girls is cryopreservation of ovarian tissue and subsequent transplantation. Yet, this procedure raises ethical concerns related to its experimental nature and to risks involved in surgery and general anesthesia. In addition, the risk of malignant cells being reintroduced in the future following autologous transplantation of the ovarian tissue is still poorly evaluated. A number of ethical issues arise surrounding this procedure. While the girl's future reproductive autonomy is at stake, it is important to also consider risks associated with the procedure. Fertility preservation through cryopreservation of ovarian tissue thus raises a conflict between the principles of beneficence and non-maleficence. We argue that the ethical complexity surrounding fertility preservation for prepubescent girls should be resolved by applying the principle of "the child's right to an open future". We propose to consider 'beneficence' through the lens of the reproductive autonomy and her potentialin becoming a genetic parent.

[Chapitre 9. Oncofertility and prepubescent girls: A 'right to an open future'?.] / Chapitre 9. Oncofertilité et jeunes filles prépubères : Un « droit à un avenir ouvert ¼ ?

Chemotherapy and radiotherapy have increased the life expectancy of cancer patients but may cause premature ovarian failure and irreversible loss of fertility. In the context of childhood cancers, it is now acknowledged that possible negative effects of treatment on future reproductive autonomy are a major concern. While a few options are open to patients post-puberty, the only option currently open to prepubescent girls is cryopreservation of ovarian tissue and subsequent transplantation. Yet, this procedure raises ethical concerns related to its experimental nature and to risks involved in surgery and general anesthesia. In addition, the risk of malignant cells being reintroduced in the future following autologous transplantation of the ovarian tissue is still poorly evaluated. A number of ethical issues arise surrounding this procedure. While the girl’s future reproductive autonomy is at stake, it is important to also consider risks associated with the procedure. Fertility preservation through cryopreservation of ovarian tissue thus raises a conflict between the principles of beneficence and non-maleficence. We argue that the ethical complexity surrounding fertility preservation for prepubescent girls should be resolved by applying the principle of “the child’s right to an open future”. We propose to consider ‘beneficence’ through the lens of the reproductive autonomy and her potentialin becoming a genetic parent.

Parents' posthumous use of daughter's ovarian tissue: Ethical dimensions.

In recent years, progress in cancer treatment has greatly increased the chances of recovery. Yet, treatment may have irreversible effects on patients' fertility. In order to protect future fertility, preservation of ovarian tissue may be offered today even to very young girls, involving a surgical procedure that may be performed by minimally invasive laparoscopy, under general anesthesia. However, in the tragic event of a girl's death, questions may arise regarding the possible use of the preserved ovarian tissue by her parents. Should posthumous reproductive use of ovarian tissue without the girl's prior consent (due to her young age) be considered a violation of her rights? On the other hand, can it be argued that it is in the interest of a child who died young to leave a genetic trace through posthumous reproduction, because genetic continuity is in the interest of every human being? After presenting the relevant clinical facts, we explore the ethical dimensions of this possible practice through an analysis of the interests of the deceased, her parents, and the child that may be born posthumously.